In Europe during the early Middle Ages, a world system based on biblical texts dominated. After a while, it was replaced by the dogmatized Aristotelianism and the geocentric system proposed by Ptolemy. The foundations of the latter called into question the data of astronomical observations, which gradually accumulated in the course of history. The confusion, complexity and imperfection of the Ptolemaic system became more and more obvious. Many attempts have been made to increase its accuracy, but they only complicate it. Back in the 13th century, Alfonso X, the Castilian king, said that if he had the opportunity to give God advice in creating the world, he would advise it to be made easier.
The heliocentric system of the world was proposed by Copernicus. She became a real revolution in astronomy. After reading this article, you will get to know Copernicus and his contribution to science. But first, we will talk about what was proposed before him by Ptolemy.
Ptolemaic system of the world and its shortcomings
The system created by the predecessor of Copernicus did not allow accurate predictions. In addition, she suffered from unsystematic, lack of integrity, internal unity. The system of the world according to Ptolemy (his portrait is presented above) assumed the study of each planet in isolation, separately from others. Each celestial body, as this scientist claimed, had its own laws of motion and an epicyclic system. The motion of the planets in geocentric systems was described using a number of independent, equal mathematical models. Geocentric theory, strictly speaking, did not form a system, since the planetary system (or system of planets) was not its object. Her speech was exclusively about individual movements that make celestial bodies.
It should be noted that using the geocentric theory it was possible to calculate only the approximate location of various celestial bodies. But to determine their location in space or true remoteness was not possible. Ptolemy considered these tasks to be completely unsolvable. A new world system, heliocentric, appeared due to the installation of a search for systemicity and internal unity.
The need for calendar reform
It should be noted that the heliocentric theory arose also in connection with the need to reform the Julian calendar. The two main points in it (the full moon and the equinox) lost touch with the actual astronomical events. In the 4th century AD e. the calendar vernal equinox date was March 21st. In 325, the Council of Nicaea fixed this number. It was used as an important starting point in calculating the date of Easter, the main Christian holiday. By the 16th century, the date of the vernal equinox (March 21) was already 10 days behind the actual one.
Since the 8th century, they tried unsuccessfully to improve the Julian calendar . At the Lateran Cathedral in Rome (1512-17), the severity of the calendar problem was noted. A number of famous astronomers have been asked to solve it. Among them was Nikolai Copernicus. However, he refused, because he considered the theory of motion of the moon and the sun insufficiently accurate and developed. But it was they who were at that time the basis of the calendar. Nevertheless, the proposal that N. Copernicus received became for him one of the motives for working on improving the geocentric theory. As a result of this work, a new world system has appeared.
Copernicus doubts about the truth of Ptolemy's theory
It was Nicholas who was destined to make one of the greatest revolutions in the history of astronomy, which was followed by a revolution in natural science. Copernicus, having become acquainted with the Ptolemy system at the end of the 15th century, appreciated his mathematical genius. However, soon the scientist began to doubt the truth of this theory. Doubts gave way to the conviction that there are deep contradictions in geocentrism.
Copernicus - a representative of the Renaissance
Nikolai Copernicus was the first of the scientists who looked at the millennia-old experience of the development of science through the eyes of a person of a new era. It's about the Renaissance. As a true representative, Copernicus proved to be a confident, courageous innovator. His predecessors lacked the courage to abandon the geocentric principle. They were engaged in the improvement of certain small details of the theory. The system of the world of Copernicus assumed a break with the millennium-old astronomical tradition. The Thinker sought in nature harmony and simplicity, the key to understanding the unity of many phenomena that seem fragmented. The world system of Nicholas Copernicus was the result of a search for its creator.
The main works of Copernicus
Copernicus outlined the basic principles of heliocentric astronomy between 1505 and 1507 in the Small Commentary. By 1530, he completed the theoretical processing of his astronomical data. However, only in 1543 one of the most important creations of human thought in the history appeared - the work "On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres". This paper presents a mathematical theory that explains the complex visible movements of the moon, the sun, five planets, and the sphere of stars. An annex to the work contains a catalog of stars. The work itself is equipped with mathematical tables.
The essence of the heliocentric system of the world
Copernicus placed the Sun in the center of the world. He indicated that the planets were moving around him. Among them was the Earth, first identified as a "moving star." The sphere of stars, as Copernicus believed, is separated from the planetary system by a huge distance. The thinker's conclusion about the great remoteness of this sphere is explained by the heliocentric principle. The fact is that only in this way could Copernicus reconcile his theory with the apparent absence of displacements in the stars. We are talking about those displacements that should appear due to the movement of the observer along with the planet Earth.
The accuracy and simplicity of the new system
The system proposed by Nikolai Copernicus was more accurate and simpler than the Ptolemy system. She immediately received wide practical application. Based on this system, "Prussian tables" were compiled, the length of the tropical year was calculated more accurately. In 1582, the long-awaited calendar reform was carried out - a new style, Gregorian, appeared.
The lower complexity of the new theory, as well as the high accuracy of calculating planetary positions based on heliocentric tables obtained at first, are by no means the main advantages of the Copernican system. Moreover, in the calculations, his theory turned out to be only slightly simpler than the Ptolemaic one. As for the accuracy of calculating the positions of the planets, it practically did not differ from it if it was necessary to calculate the changes observed over a long period of time.
At first, the Prussian Tables gave somewhat greater accuracy. This was explained, however, not simply by the introduction of the heliocentric principle. The fact is that Copernicus used a more advanced mathematical apparatus for his calculations. However, the Prussian Tables soon also diverged from the data obtained during the observations.
Enthusiasm for the theory proposed by Copernicus was gradually replaced by disappointment in it among those who expected to get an immediate practical effect. For more than half a century, from the beginning of the Copernican system to the discovery of the phases of Venus by Galileo in 1616, there was no direct evidence that the planets move around the Sun. Thus, the truth of the new system was not confirmed by observations. What was the true strength and attractiveness of the theory of Copernicus, which caused a real revolution in natural science?
Copernicus and Aristotelian cosmology
As you know, any new appears on the basis of the old. In this regard, Copernicus was no exception. The one who created the heliocentric system of the world shared many of the provisions of Aristotelian cosmology. For example, the Universe seemed to him a closed space, which is limited by a special sphere of fixed stars. Copernicus did not depart from the Aristotelian dogma, and in accordance with it, the movements of celestial bodies are always circular and uniform. Copernicus was even more conservative in this respect than Ptolemy. The latter introduced the concept of equant and did not deny the possibility of the existence of uneven motion of celestial bodies.
The main merit of Copernicus
The merit of Copernicus was that, unlike his predecessors, he tried to create a planetary theory that is distinguished by logical harmony and simplicity. The scientist saw in the absence of consistency, harmony and simplicity the fundamental inconsistency of the system proposed by Ptolemy. It lacked a single core principle that would explain the laws of motion of various celestial bodies.
The revolutionary significance of the principle proposed by Copernicus was that Nicholas introduced a unified system of motion for all the planets, explained many effects previously unknown to scientists. For example, using the idea of the daily and annual movements of our planet, he explained the main features of such intricate movements of celestial bodies as loops, standing, backward movements. The Copernican system made it possible to understand why the diurnal movement of the sky occurs. From now on, the loop-like movements of the planets were explained by the fact that the Earth rotates around the Sun with a cycle of one year.
A departure from the scholastic tradition
The theory of Copernicus has identified the emergence of a new method of cognition of nature, based on a scientific approach. According to the scholastic tradition, which his predecessors adhered to, in order to know the essence of an object, it is not necessary to study its external side in detail. Scholastics believed that the essence can be understood directly by the mind. In contrast to them, Copernicus showed that it can be understood only after a thorough study of the phenomenon under consideration, its contradictions and patterns. The heliocentric system of the world N. Copernicus has become a powerful impetus in the development of science.
How did the church react to the new doctrine
The Catholic Church at first did not attach much importance to the doctrine proposed by Copernicus. But, when it became clear that it undermined the foundations of religion, its supporters began to be persecuted. For spreading the teachings of Copernicus in 1600, Giordano Bruno, an Italian thinker , was burned at the stake. The scientific debate between the supporters of Ptolemy and Copernicus turned into a struggle between reactionary and progressive forces. In the end, the latter won.