The first science of time is astronomy. The results of observations in ancient observatories were used for farming and worship. However, with the development of crafts, the need arose to measure short periods of time. Thus, mankind came to the invention of watches. The process was long, filled with intense work of the best minds.
The history of watches dates back many centuries, this is the oldest invention of mankind. From a stick stuck in the ground to an ultra-precise chronometer - a path that is hundreds of generations long. If you make a rating of the achievements of human civilization, then in the nomination "great inventions" the watch will be in second place after the wheel.
There was a time when people had enough calendar. But crafts appeared, the need arose to fix the duration of technological processes. It took hours, the purpose of which is to measure time intervals shorter than a day. For this man over the centuries used various physical processes. Corresponding were the designs that implement them.
The history of watches is divided into two large periods. The first is several millennia long, the second is less than one.
1. The history of the appearance of watches, called protozoa. This category includes solar, water, fire and sand devices. The period ends with a study of the mechanical clock of the pre-dominant period. These were medieval chimes.
2. A new history of watches, starting with the invention of the pendulum and balance, which marked the beginning of the development of classical oscillatory chronometry. This period is not over yet.
Sundial
The oldest ones that have come down to us. Therefore, it is the history of the sundial that opens the parade of great inventions in the field of timekeeping. Despite the apparent simplicity, they were distinguished by a wide variety of designs.
The sundial is based on the apparent movement of the sun throughout the day. The countdown is based on the shadow cast by the axis. Their use is possible only on a sunny day. Ancient Egypt had favorable climatic conditions for this. The greatest distribution on the banks of the Nile was a sundial that looked like obelisks. They were installed at the entrance to the temples. A gnomon in the form of a vertical obelisk and a scale on the ground - this is how the ancient sundial looked like. The photo below shows one of them. One of the Egyptian obelisks transported to Europe has survived to this day. The 34-meter-high Gnomon is currently towering on one of the squares in Rome.
Ordinary sundials had a significant drawback. They knew about him, but reconciled for a long time. In different seasons, that is, in summer and winter, the duration of the hour was not the same. But during the period when the agrarian system and craft relations dominated, there was no need for an accurate measurement of times. Therefore, the sundial lasted safely until the late Middle Ages.
The gnomon was replaced by more advanced designs. Improved sundials, in which this drawback was eliminated, had a curvilinear scale. In addition to this improvement, various designs were used. So, in Europe, wall and window sundials were common.
Further improvement took place in 1431. It consisted in orienting the shadow arrow parallel to the earth's axis. Such an arrow was called a semi-axis. Now the shadow, rotating around the semi-axis, moved evenly, turning 15 ° in an hour. Such a design made it possible to produce a sundial that was sufficiently accurate for its time. The photo shows one of these devices preserved in China.
For proper installation, the structure began to be equipped with a compass. Now you can use the watch everywhere. It was possible to make even portable models. Since 1445, sundials began to be built in the form of a hollow hemisphere equipped with an arrow, the shadow of which fell on the inner surface.
Search for an alternative
Despite the fact that the sundial was convenient and accurate, it had serious shortcomings of an objective nature. They completely depended on the weather, and their functioning was limited to part of the day, enclosed in the interval between sunrise and sunset. In search of an alternative, scientists sought to find other ways to measure lengths of time. It was required that they were not associated with observing the motion of stars and planets.
The search led to the creation of artificial standards of time. For example, this was the interval necessary for the flow or combustion of a certain specific amount of substance.
The simplest watches created on this basis have come a long way in the development and improvement of designs, thereby paving the way for the creation of not only mechanical watches, but also automation devices.
Clepsydra
The name "clepsydra" was assigned to the water clock, so there is a misconception that they were first invented in Greece. In reality, this was not so. The oldest, very primitive clepsydra was found in the temple of Amon in Phoebe and is stored in the Cairo Museum.
When creating a water clock, it is necessary to ensure a uniform decrease in the water level in the vessel when it expires through a calibrated bottom hole. This was achieved by giving the vessel the shape of a cone, tapering closer to the bottom. It was possible to get a regularity that describes the rate of fluid leakage depending on its level and the shape of the tank only in the Middle Ages. Prior to this, the shape of the vessel for the water clock was selected empirically. For example, the Egyptian clepsydra, which was mentioned above, gave a uniform decrease in the level. Let with some error.
Since clepsydra was independent of the time of day and weather, it maximally met the requirements of continuous time measurement. In addition, the need for further improvement of the device, the addition of various functions provided room for designers to fly imagination. So, clepsydra of Arab origin were works of art in combination with high functionality. They were equipped with additional hydraulic and pneumatic mechanisms: an audio time signaling device, a night lighting system.
Not many names of the creators of the water clock have been preserved by history. They were manufactured not only in Europe, but also in China and India. Information has come to us about a Greek mechanic named Ctesibius of Alexandria, who lived 150 years before the new era. In clepsydra, Ctesibius used gears, the theoretical development of which was carried out by Aristotle.
Fire watch
This group appeared at the beginning of the 13th century. The first firing hours were thin candles up to 1 meter high with the marks applied to them. Sometimes certain divisions were equipped with metal pins, which, falling onto a metal stand when wax burned out around them, made a distinctive sound. Such devices served as a prototype of the alarm clock.
With the advent of transparent glass, the fire watch is transformed into a lamp clock. A scale was applied on the wall, according to which, as the oil burned out, the time was determined.
The most common such devices are in China. Along with the icon lamps in this country, another type of fire watch was widespread - wick watches. We can say that it was a dead end branch.
Hourglass
When they were born, it is not known exactly. We can only say with confidence that they could not appear before the invention of glass.
The hourglass is two transparent glass flasks. Through the connecting neck, the contents are poured from the upper flask into the lower one. And nowadays, you can still find the hourglass. The photo depicts one of the models, stylized antique.
Medieval craftsmen in the manufacture of appliances decorated the hourglass with exquisite decor. They were used not only for measuring periods of time, but also as an interior decoration. In the homes of many nobles and dignitaries, one could see a luxurious hourglass. The photo represents one of these models.
The hourglass arrived in Europe quite late - at the end of the Middle Ages, but their distribution was swift. Due to its simplicity, the ability to use at any time, they quickly became very popular.
One of the shortcomings of the hourglass is a rather short period of time, measured without turning them over. Cassettes made up of them did not take root. The propagation of such models was hindered by their low accuracy, as well as wear and tear during long-term operation. It happened as follows. The calibrated hole in the diaphragm between the flasks was worn away, increasing in diameter, the sand particles, on the contrary, were crushed, decreasing in size. The flow rate increased, time decreased.
Mechanical watches: prerequisites for the appearance
The need for a more accurate measurement of time periods with the development of production and social relations has steadily increased. The best minds have worked to solve this problem.
The invention of mechanical watches is a landmark event that occurred in the Middle Ages, because they are the most complex device created in those years. In turn, this served as an impetus for the further development of science and technology.
The invention of watches and their improvement required more advanced, accurate and high-performance technological equipment, new methods of calculation and design. This was the beginning of a new era.
The creation of mechanical watches became possible with the invention of spindle descent. This device converted the translational motion of a weight hanging on a rope into an oscillatory movement of the clock-wheel back and forth. Here, continuity is clearly traced - after all, complex models of clepsydras already had a dial, a gear transmission, and a battle. All that was needed was to change the driving force: replace the stream of water with a heavy weight, which was easier to handle, and add a trigger and a travel regulator.
On this basis, mechanisms for tower clocks were created. Chimes with a spindle regulator came into use around the year 1340 and became the pride of many cities and cathedrals.
The formation of classical oscillatory chronometry
The history of the watch kept for posterity the names of scientists and inventors who made it possible to create them. The theoretical basis was the discovery made by Galileo Galilei, voicing the laws describing the oscillations of the pendulum. He is the author of the idea of ​​mechanical pendulum clocks.
In 1658, the talented Dutchman Christian Huygens succeeded in realizing the idea of ​​Galileo. He is the author of the invention of the balance regulator, which made it possible to create a pocket watch and then a wristwatch. In 1674, Huygens developed an improved regulator by attaching a spiral spring in the form of a hair to the flywheel wheel.
Another iconic invention belongs to the watchmaker from Nuremberg named Peter Henlein. He invented the winding spring, and in 1500 created a pocket watch based on it.
In parallel, there were changes in appearance. At first, one arrow was enough. But as the watch became very accurate, it required an appropriate indication. In 1680, the minute hand was added, and the dial took on the familiar look of ours. In the eighteenth century began to establish a second hand. Initially, the lateral, and later it became central.
In the seventeenth century, the creation of watches was transferred to the category of art. Exquisitely decorated cases decorated with enamel dials, which by that time were covered with glass, all this turned the mechanisms into a luxury item.
Work to improve and complicate the instruments continued uninterruptedly. Increased accuracy. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, they began to use stones - ruby ​​and sapphire stones as supports for the balancer and gears. This has reduced friction, improved accuracy and increased power reserve. Interesting complications appeared - perpetual calendar, automatic plant, power reserve indicator.
The impetus for the development of pendulum clocks was the invention of the English watchmaker Clement. Around 1676, he developed an anchor-anchor descent. This device was well suited to pendulum clocks, which had a small amplitude of oscillations.
Quartz watch
Further improvement of instruments for measuring time occurred in an avalanche-like manner. The development of electronics and radio engineering paved the way for the appearance of quartz watches. Their work is based on the piezoelectric effect. It was discovered in 1880, but quartz watches were made only in 1937. The newly created quartz models differed from the classic mechanical ones with amazing accuracy. The era of electronic watches has begun. What is their feature?
Quartz watches have a mechanism consisting of an electronic unit and the so-called stepper motor. How it works? The engine, receiving a signal from the electronic unit, moves the arrows. Instead of the usual dial in a quartz watch, a digital display can be used. We call them electronic. In the West - quartz with digital indication. This does not change the essence.
In fact, a quartz watch is a mini-computer. Additional functions are very easily added: stopwatch, moon phase indicator, calendar, alarm clock. The price of watches at the same time, unlike mechanics, does not increase so much. This makes them more affordable.
Quartz watches are very accurate. Their error is ± 15 seconds / month. Correct instrument readings twice a year.
Wall clock
Digital indication and compactness - these are the distinguishing features of such mechanisms. Electronic clocks are universally used as integrated ones. They can be seen on the dashboard of a car, in a mobile phone, in a microwave and TV.
As an element of the interior, you can often find a more popular classic version, that is, with a directional indication.
Wall clocks organically fit into the interior in the style of hi-tech, modern, techno. They are attracted primarily by their functionality.
By the type of display, electronic watches are liquid crystal and LED. The latter are more functional, as they have a backlight.
According to the type of power source, the electronic clock (wall and desktop) is divided into network, working from a 220V network, and battery. Devices of the second type are more convenient, since they do not require a nearby outlet.
Cuckoo clock
German craftsmen began to make them from the beginning of the eighteenth century. Traditionally, a cuckoo wall clock was made of wood. Richly decorated with carvings, made in the form of a bird house, they were the decoration of rich mansions.
At one time, inexpensive models were popular in the USSR and in the post-Soviet space. For many years, the Mayak cuckoo wall clock produced a factory in the Russian city of Serdobsk. Weights in the form of fir cones, a house decorated with plain carvings, paper furs of a sound mechanism - they were remembered by such representatives of the older generation.
Nowadays, classic cuckoo clocks are rare. This is due to the high price of quality models. If you do not take into account the quartz crafts of Asian craftsmen made of plastic, fairy cuckoos cook only in the homes of true connoisseurs of watch exoticism. Accurate, complex mechanism, leather furs, exquisite carvings on the case - all this requires a large amount of highly skilled manual labor. Only the most reputable manufacturers can produce such models.
Alarm clock
These are the most common “walkers” in the interior.
Alarm clock is the first additional function that was implemented in the watch. It was patented in 1847 by the Frenchman Antoine Radier.
In a classic mechanical desktop alarm clock, sound is produced by hammering metal plates. Electronic models are more melodic.
According to the execution of the alarm clocks are divided into small-sized and large-sized, desktop and road.
Desktop alarm clocks are made with separate engines for clockwork and signal. They start separately.
With the advent of quartz watches, the popularity of mechanical alarms has fallen. There are several reasons for this. A quartz -based desk alarm clock has a number of advantages over classic mechanical devices: they are more accurate, do not require a daily factory, they are easy to choose for the design of the room. In addition, they are light, not so afraid of bumps and falls.
A mechanical watch with an alarm clock is usually called a “signal”. Such models are produced by few companies. So, collectors know a model called "presidential cricket"
“Cricket” (in English cricket) - under this name, the Swiss company Vulcain produced watches with the function of an alarm clock. They are known for being owned by American presidents: Dwight Eisenhower, Harry Truman, Richard Nixon and Lyndon Johnson.
History of watches for children
Time is a complex philosophical category and at the same time a physical quantity that requires measurement. Man lives in time. Already from the kindergarten, a training and education program provides for the development of children's orientation skills in time.
You can teach your child to use the watch as soon as he has learned the score. Layouts will help. You can combine a cardboard clock with a daily routine, placing all this for greater clarity on a piece of paper. You can organize classes with elements of the game, using puzzles with drawings.
The history of watches for children aged 6-7 years is studied in thematic classes. Material must be submitted in such a way as to arouse interest in the topic. Children are introduced in an accessible form to the history of watches, their views in the past and present. Then consolidate the acquired knowledge. To do this, demonstrate the principle of operation of the simplest hours - solar, water and fire. These classes arouse children's interest in research, develop a creative imagination and curiosity. They bring a respect for time.
At school, in grades 5-7, the history of the invention of watches is studied. It is based on the knowledge acquired by the child in the lessons of astronomy, history, geography, physics. Thus, the acquired material is fixed. Watches, their invention and improvement are considered as part of the history of material culture, the achievements of which are aimed at meeting the needs of society. The topic of the lesson can be formulated as follows: "Inventions that changed the history of mankind."
In high school, it is advisable to continue the study of watches as an accessory in terms of fashion and interior aesthetics. It is important to introduce children to watch etiquette, to talk about the basic principles of selecting interior watches. One of the classes can be devoted to time management.
The history of the invention of watches clearly shows the continuity of generations, its study is an effective means of shaping the worldview of a young man.