The greatness and diversity of the world can amaze any imagination. All objects and objects surrounding a person, other people, various types of plants and animals, particles that can only be seen with a microscope, as well as incomprehensible star clusters: they are all united by the concept of "Universe".
Theories of the origin of the universe have been developed by man since ancient times. Despite the absence of even an initial concept of religion or science, in the inquisitive minds of ancient people questions arose about the principles of the world order and what is the position of a person in the space that surrounds him. It is difficult to count how many theories of the emergence of the Universe exist today, some of them are studied by leading scientists of world renown, others are frankly fantastic.
Cosmology and its subject
Modern cosmology - the science of the structure and development of the Universe - considers the question of its origin as one of the most interesting and still insufficiently studied puzzles. The nature of the processes that contributed to the emergence of stars, galaxies, solar systems and planets, their development, the source of the appearance of the Universe, as well as its size and boundaries: all this is just a short list of issues studied by modern scientists.
The search for answers to the fundamental mystery about the formation of the world has led to the fact that today there are various theories of the emergence, existence, development of the Universe. The excitement of experts seeking answers, building and testing hypotheses is justified, because a reliable theory of the birth of the Universe will reveal for all mankind the probability of life in other systems and planets.
Theories of the emergence of the Universe have the character of scientific concepts, individual hypotheses, religious teachings, philosophical representations and myths. They are all conditionally divided into two main categories:
- Theories according to which the universe was created by the creator. In other words, their essence is that the process of creating the Universe was a conscious and spiritualized action, a manifestation of the will of a higher mind.
- Theories of the origin of the universe, based on scientific factors. Their postulates categorically reject both the existence of the creator and the possibility of conscious creation of the world. Such hypotheses are often based on what is called the principle of mediocrity. They suggest the likelihood of having life not only on our planet, but also on others.
Creationism - Theory of the Creation of the World by the Creator
As the name implies, creationism (creation) is a religious theory of the origin of the universe. This worldview is based on the concept of creating the Universe, planet and man by God or the Creator.
For a long time, the idea was dominant, up to the end of the 19th century, when the process of accumulating knowledge in various fields of science (biology, astronomy, physics) accelerated, and evolutionary theory was widely spread. Creationism has become a peculiar reaction of Christians who hold conservative views on discoveries. The idea of evolutionary development dominating at that time only strengthened the contradictions existing between religious and other theories.
What is the difference between scientific and religious theories
The main differences between the theories of various categories are primarily in terms used by their adherents. So, in scientific hypotheses, instead of the creator, is nature, and instead of creation, origin. Along with this, there are issues that are similarly covered by various theories or even completely duplicated.
Theories of the emergence of the Universe, belonging to opposite categories, differently date its very appearance. For example, according to the most common hypothesis (the Big Bang theory), the Universe was formed about 13 billion years ago.
In contrast, the religious theory of the emergence of the universe gives completely different figures:
- According to Christian sources, the age of the universe created by God at the time of the birth of Jesus Christ was 3483-6984 years.
- Hinduism suggests that our world is approximately 155 trillion years old.
Kant and his cosmological model
Until the 20th century, most scientists held the opinion of the infinity of the universe. They characterized time and space by this quality. In addition, in their opinion, the Universe was static and homogeneous.
The idea of the infinity of the universe in space was put forward by Isaac Newton. The development of this assumption was dealt with by Emanuel Kant, who developed the theory of the absence of time boundaries as well. Going further, in theoretical assumptions, Kant extended the infinity of the universe to the number of possible biological products. This postulate meant that in the conditions of an ancient and vast world without end and beginning there could be innumerable possible options, as a result of which the appearance of any biological species is real.
Based on this theory about the possible occurrence of life forms, Darwin's theory was later developed. Observations of the starry sky and the results of astronomers' calculations confirmed Kant's cosmological model.
Einstein's thoughts
At the beginning of the 20th century, Albert Einstein published his own model of the universe. According to his theory of relativity, two opposite processes simultaneously occur in the Universe: expansion and contraction. However, he agreed with the opinion of most scientists about the stationarity of the Universe, so he introduced the concept of cosmic repulsive force. Its effect is designed to balance the attraction of stars and stop the process of movement of all celestial bodies in order to maintain the static nature of the universe.
The model of the Universe - according to Einstein - has a certain size, but there are no boundaries. Such a combination is feasible only with the curvature of space in such a way as it happens in a sphere.
The characteristics of the space of such a model are:
- Three-dimensionality.
- Locking oneself.
- Homogeneity (lack of center and edge), in which galaxies are evenly distributed.
A. A. Friedman: The Universe is Expanding
The creator of the revolutionary expanding model of the Universe, A. A. Fridman (USSR) built his theory on the basis of equations characterizing the general theory of relativity. True, the generally accepted opinion in the scientific world of that time was the static nature of our world, therefore, due attention was not paid to his work.
A few years later, astronomer Edwin Hubble made a discovery that confirmed the ideas of Friedman. It was discovered the removal of galaxies from the nearby Milky Way. However, the fact of maintaining the proportionality of their speed to the distance between them and our galaxy became irrefutable.
This discovery explains the constant “scattering” of stars and galaxies in relation to each other, which leads to the conclusion that the universe is expanding.
Ultimately, the conclusions of Friedman were recognized by Einstein, later he mentioned the merits of the Soviet scientist as the founder of the hypothesis of the expansion of the universe.
This is not to say that there are contradictions between this theory and the general theory of relativity, however, with the expansion of the Universe, there should have been an initial impulse that provoked the scattering of stars. By analogy with the explosion, the idea was called the "Big Bang."
Stephen Hawking and the Anthropic Principle
The result of the calculations and discoveries of Stephen Hawking was an anthropocentric theory of the emergence of the universe. Its creator claims that the existence of a planet so well prepared for human life cannot be accidental.
The theory of the emergence of the Stephen Hawking Universe also provides for the gradual evaporation of black holes, their loss of energy and the emission of Hawking radiation.
As a result of the search for evidence, more than 40 characteristics were identified and verified, the observance of which is necessary for the development of civilization. American astrophysicist Hugh Ross assessed the likelihood of such an unintentional coincidence. The result was the figure 10 -53 .
Our Universe includes a trillion galaxies, 100 billion stars in each. According to calculations made by scientists, the total number of planets should be 10 20 . This figure is 33 orders of magnitude less than previously calculated. Therefore, not one of the planets in all galaxies can combine conditions that would be suitable for the spontaneous emergence of life.
The Big Bang Theory: The Origin of the Universe from a Vitally Small Particle
Scientists supporting the big bang theory share the hypothesis that the universe is a consequence of a grand bang. The main postulate of the theory is the assertion that before this event all the elements of the present Universe were enclosed in a particle that had microscopic dimensions. Being inside it, the elements were characterized by a singular state in which indicators such as temperature, density and pressure cannot be measured. They are endless. The laws of physics do not affect matter and energy in this state.
The cause of the explosion, which occurred 15 billion years ago, is called the instability that has arisen inside the particle. The smallest smallest elements laid the foundation for the world that we know today.
At first, the Universe was a nebula formed by the smallest particles (smaller than an atom). Then, combining, they formed atoms, which served as the basis of star galaxies. The answer to questions about what happened before the explosion, as well as what caused it, are the most important of the tasks of this theory of the emergence of the Universe.
The table schematically depicts the stages of the formation of the universe after the big bang.
| State of the universe | Time axis | Estimated temperature |
| Expansion (inflation) | 10 -45 to 10 -37 seconds | More than 10 26 K |
| Quarks and electrons appear | 10 -6 s | Over 10 13 K |
| Protons and neutrons formed | 10 -5 s | 10 12 K |
| Helium, deuterium, and lithium nuclei appear. | 10 -4 s to 3 min | 10 11 to 10 9 K |
| Atoms formed | 400 thousand years | 4000 K |
| Gas cloud continues to expand | 15 million years | 300 k |
| The first stars and galaxies are born | 1 billion years | 20 K |
| Explosions of stars provoke the formation of heavy nuclei | 3 billion years | 10K |
| The process of birth of stars ceases | 10-15 billion years | 3K |
| The energy of all stars is depleted | 10 14 years | 10 -2K |
| Black holes are depleted and elementary particles are born | 10 40 years | -20K |
| The evaporation of all black holes ends | 10 100 years | 10-60 to 10-40K |
As follows from the above data, the Universe continues to expand and cool.
The constant increase in the distance between galaxies is the main postulate: what is the difference between the big bang theory. The emergence of the Universe in this way can be confirmed by the evidence found. There are also grounds for refuting it.
Theory of theory
Given that the Big Bang theory is not proven in practice, it is not surprising that there are several questions that it is not able to answer:
- Singularity. This word denotes the state of the Universe, compressed to one point. The problem of the big bang theory is the impossibility of describing the processes occurring in matter and space in such a state. The general law of relativity is not applicable here, therefore it is impossible to make a mathematical description and equations for modeling.
The fundamental impossibility of obtaining an answer to the question about the initial state of the Universe discredits the theory from the very beginning. Her non-fiction narratives prefer to hush up or mention this complexity only in passing. However, for scientists working to bring the mathematical base to the big bang theory, this difficulty is recognized as the main obstacle. - Astronomy. In this field, the big bang theory is faced with the fact that it cannot describe the process of the origin of galaxies. Based on modern versions of theories, it is possible to predict how a uniform cloud of gas appears. Moreover, its density by now should be about one atom per cubic meter. To get something more you can not do without adjusting the initial state of the universe. Lack of information and practical experience in this area are becoming serious obstacles to further modeling.
There is also a discrepancy in the estimated mass of our galaxy and the data obtained by studying the speed of its attraction to the Andromeda galaxy. Apparently, the weight of our galaxy is ten times more than previously thought.
Cosmology and quantum physics
Today there are no cosmological theories that would not be based on quantum mechanics. After all, she is engaged in describing the behavior of atomic and subatomic particles. The difference between quantum physics and classical physics (stated by Newton) is that the second observes and describes material objects, and the first involves an exclusively mathematical description of observation and measurement itself. For quantum physics, material values do not represent the subject of research, here the observer himself acts as a part of the situation under study.
Based on these features, quantum mechanics has difficulty describing the Universe, because the observer is part of the Universe. However, speaking of the emergence of the universe, it is impossible to imagine outsiders. Attempts to develop a model without the participation of an outside observer were crowned with the quantum theory of the emergence of the universe of J. Wheeler.
Its essence is that at every moment of time, the Universe splits and the formation of an infinite number of copies. As a result, each of the parallel Universes can be observable, and observers can see all quantum alternatives. In this case, the original and new worlds are real.
Inflationary model
The main task that the theory of inflation is called to solve is the search for an answer to questions that remain unlit by the big bang theory and the expansion theory. Namely:
- Why is the universe expanding?
- What is a big bang?
To this end, the inflationary theory of the emergence of the Universe provides for extrapolation of expansion to a zero point in time, the conclusion of the entire mass of the Universe at one point and the formation of a cosmological singularity, which is often referred to as the big bang.
The irrelevance of the general theory of relativity, which cannot be applied at this moment, becomes obvious. As a result, only theoretical methods, calculations, and conclusions can be applied to develop a more general theory (or “new physics”) and solve the problem of cosmological singularity.
New Alternative Theories
Despite the success of the cosmic inflation model, there are scientists who oppose it, calling it insolvent. Their main argument is the criticism of the solutions proposed by the theory. Opponents argue that the solutions obtained leave some details missing, in other words, instead of solving the problem of initial values, the theory only skillfully drapes them.
An alternative are several exotic theories, the idea of which is based on the formation of initial values before the big bang. New theories of the emergence of the universe can be briefly described as follows:
- String theory. Its adherents propose, in addition to the usual four dimensions of space and time, to introduce additional dimensions. They could play a role in the early stages of the universe, and at the moment be in a compactified state. When asked about the reason for their compactification, scientists offer an answer stating that the property of superstrings is T-duality. Therefore, the strings are "wound" on additional measurements and their size is limited.
- Bran theory. It is also called the M-theory. In accordance with its postulates, at the beginning of the process of the formation of the Universe there is a cold static five-dimensional space-time. Four of them (spatial) have limitations, or walls are tri-branes. , . - , . . .
- , , . , . , , – , . .
Regardless of how many theories of the emergence of the universe exist, only two of them have stood the test of time and overcome the problem of ever-increasing entropy. They were developed by scientists Steinhardt-Türk and Baum-Frampton.
These relatively new theories of the emergence of the Universe were put forward in the 80s of the last century. They have many followers who develop models based on it, are engaged in the search for evidence of reliability and are working to resolve the contradictions.
String theory
One of the most popular among the theory of the emergence of the universe is string theory. Before proceeding to the description of her idea, it is necessary to understand the concepts of one of the closest competitors, the standard model. She suggests that matter and interactions can be described as a specific set of particles that are divided into several groups:
These particles are, in fact, the bricks of the universe, since they are so small that they cannot be divided into components.
A distinctive feature of string theory is the assertion that such bricks are not particles, but ultramicroscopic strings that oscillate. At the same time, oscillating at different frequencies, the strings become analogues of various particles described in the standard model.
To understand the theory, one should realize that strings are not any matter, this is energy. Therefore, string theory concludes that all elements of the universe are composed of energy.
A good analogy is fire. Looking at him gives the impression of his materiality, but one cannot touch him.
Cosmology for students
Theories of the origin of the universe are briefly studied in schools in astronomy classes. Students are described the basic theories about how our world was formed, what happens to it now and how it will develop in the future.
The purpose of the lessons is to introduce children to the nature of the formation of elementary particles, chemical elements and celestial bodies. Theories of the emergence of the universe for children are reduced to the presentation of the theory of the big bang. Teachers use visual material: slides, tables, posters, illustrations. Their main task is to arouse in children an interest in the world that surrounds them.