The war between the United States and Mexico over the controversial Texas led to the fact that the Americans annexed not only Texas, but also their entire modern Southwest. The campaign was conducted on several fronts and was remembered by an unprecedented partisanism.
Texas dispute
In the middle of the XIX century, the New World survived one of the most important wars for this region. The bloodshed began due to a clash of interests between the United States and Mexico. Countries could not divide Texas. In 1836, this region broke away from Mexico and declared its independence (Mexico did not recognize independence and considered the newly emerging republic a rebel territory, which was temporarily seized by the separatists).
Texas, meanwhile, began to establish contacts with the United States. American-Mexican wars broke out because of Washington’s desire to annex the republic. This policy was professed by the democrats. In 1844, their candidate, James Polk, became the president of the United States. In American society itself, the prospect of Texas annexation was twofold. On the one hand, the inhabitants of the agricultural south wanted this, and on the other, the northern industrial states, which were in confrontation with the southern slaveholders, opposed this.
Inevitability of war
Despite all the contradictions, the disputed territories nevertheless became part of the United States. This happened in 1845, when Texas became the 28th state in a row. Mexico still considered the republic a part of its territory, and therefore its authorities sharply condemned Washington's decision. Relations between the two countries have deteriorated sharply. The situation was approaching critical.
France and Great Britain tried to intervene in the conflict. Two European powers recognized Texas as an independent republic and praised its accession to the United States as a decision by a sovereign state. Guided by these considerations, Paris and London called on Mexico not to declare war on the United States. However, their efforts were fruitless.
Failure of diplomacy
The reason for the outbreak of war was the border of the United States and Mexico. Due to the controversial status of Texas, countries could not agree on who owns which territory. Mexico considered the Nuezes River the border, and the United States the Rio Grande. The dispute remained unresolved when, in the spring of 1845, American troops entered Texas. Squadrons armed with the latest technology appeared in the ocean.
The US government was preparing for the upcoming campaign in a regime of enhanced stealth. Society did not suspect anything of the impending bloodshed. For the species, negotiations were initiated on the purchase of US Mexican lands. The states offered different amounts in exchange for territories west of Texas. It was California (25 million dollars) and New Mexico (5 million). At the same time, the disputed lands between the Rio Grande and Nuezes were transferred free of charge to Texas. The offer was rejected.
Political Situation in Mexico
On the eve of the war, Mexico entered a period of political instability. In 1846, the president changed four times in the country, six times the Minister of Defense, and another sixteen the Minister of Finance. The leapfrog occurred in the context of growing anti-American sentiment. The public was extremely patriotic. Any person who claimed power and advocated for a peaceful settlement of the conflict with the United States immediately became an outcast.
When a government composed of nationalists was formed in Mexico, they went on to further aggravate relations with their northern neighbor. New politicians have openly announced their claims to Texas. US-Mexican wars were getting closer and inevitable. At the beginning of 1846 in Washington received a message that opponents refused to meet with the next special envoy.
Arista Mariano
On March 8, 1846, the American army crossed the Rubicon and entered Mexico. The decision to start the war was made in Washington the day before. On the banks of the Rio Grande, the army began building forts and building batteries. At the same time, a blockade of enemy ports followed.
A full-fledged military conflict between the United States and Mexico began on April 23, when Mexico declared war on the States. At first, Arista Mariano was chosen as the Commander-in-Chief. He built his military career in the Spanish army. After Mexico began an armed struggle for independence, the officer joined the revolutionaries. Mariano was a supporter of liberal ideas. When the Mexican-American War ended, he began to build a career as a politician, and in 1851-1853. served as president of Mexico.
Major General Taylor
The US responded to Mexico with a declaration of war on May 13th. The American commander in chief was Zachary Taylor. He was a native of Virginia and had already established himself well during the Anglo-American War. In addition, he conducted many raids in the Indian wilderness. First of all, he was to occupy northeastern Mexico, and if the enemy refused to capitulate, he should threaten Mexico City.
Thanks to the victory over his southern neighbor Zachary Taylor, who had never before held public office, the path to big politics was opened. In 1848 he was elected 12th President of the United States. However, by that time his health was already undermined by numerous diseases that accompanied the military during his campaigns. Taylor passed away a year after taking office. As a result, his main achievement was not his tenure as president, but his victory over the Mexicans.
The Return of Santa Anna
Soon after the border between the United States and Mexico was left behind, the American army captured the city of Matamoros, after firing at it from artillery. The attackers had a technical, quantitative and qualitative advantage, as a result of which their victories were logical and natural. After Matamoros, several more cities surrendered: Seralvo, Camargo and Reynos.
The outbreak of hostilities led to another change of power in Mexico. Liberals took control of the state. They carried out several reforms and returned General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna from forced emigration. After becoming president, he led new negotiations with the Americans.
Assault Monterrey
Meanwhile, on September 20, 1846, Taylor's army besieged the city of Monterrey. The walls did not give in to artillery for several days. The besiegers gained an advantage only after a squad of Texas rangers occupied several hills west of Monterrey. A convenient position allowed the Americans to launch an assault from two sides, which was crowned with success.
On the fifth day, isolated Mexicans ran out of ammunition and surrendered. More than 500 people died in the storming, 300 in the besieged. Taylor's army was exhausted. Heavy losses forced the military commander to let go of the Mexican defense forces, retaining his weapons and banners. The assault cost Monterrey a lot. A significant part of the city was destroyed and burned. The history of Mexico is full of dramatic events, but it is precisely this siege that the Mexicans consider the most important symbol of the war with the United States.
Campaign Continuation
Following Monterrey, the Americans surrendered to the state capital of Coahuila Saltillo. In November, the key Mexican port of Tampico was captured. All this time, Santa Anna continued to gather strength and prepared for a decisive battle. His goal was Taylor's army, not far from Saltillo. Significantly larger Mexican forces clashed with the Americans on February 22-23, 1847 at the Battle of Bueno Vista. Santa Anne’s people had to travel 300 kilometers through the arid desert. The soldiers suffered from a lack of food and water. There were massive desertions. By the beginning of the battle, the fighting spirit of the Mexican army left much to be desired.
A narrow mountain passage leading to Saltillo became a place of bloodshed. On the first day, the Mexicans went around the enemy army from the left flank, penetrated the rear and smashed the wing commanded by Taylor. Some parts of the Americans retreated in the direction of Saltillo. The battle resumed on February 23. In the evening, Santa Anna suddenly receded. He explained his decision by the fact that in the army there was a shortage of ammunition. Mexicans lost about 1,500 dead, Americans - 700.
Coup in Mexico City
The situation in Mexico was getting worse. While Texas, California, and other provinces continued to come under US control, money was running out in the defeated country. The government ordered the requisition of part of the church property. Its sale would help continue the war. However, such measures were opposed by the most diverse sectors of Mexican society.
An anti-government uprising has begun. Santa Anna hastened to leave the front and went to restore order in the capital. Mexico City, meanwhile, has already overthrown the government. Santa Anna joined the rebels. After the fall of the former power, he received dictatorial powers.
Landing in Veracruz
While civil strife erupted in Mexico City, the Mexican-American wars continued in their normal course. At the last stage of the campaign, the US Army, deployed in the north, stopped its triumphal offensive and went on to defend its positions. The Americans did not dare to move to the enemy’s capital through the steppes and semi-deserts, where there was no water. Instead, their landing party seized the port of Veracruz. From it was the shortest route to Mexico City.
Winfield Scott was elected Commander-in-Chief in the new operation. Taylor did not organize a democratic party, as in the wake of his popularity he began to aspire to the presidency after the next election. The landing of the 12,000th landing began on March 9, 1847. The capture of Veracruz was attended by many future heroes of the US Civil War, including George Mead and Robert Lee.
New front
Veracruz capitulated on March 29th. The Americans got off with only 80 killed, but in their army an epidemic of yellow fever began. Driven by circumstances, Winfield Scott hurried. On April 17, his army met with the Mexican troops commanded by Santa Anna again. The Americans captured the strategic height, installed howitzers on it, and thanks to this they won the battle.
The city of Perote fell on April 22, and Puebla on May 15. The offensive was hindered by a guerrilla war unfolding in the vicinity of Veracruz. The rebels attacked small detachments and convoys of interventionists. These gangs robbed wagons, took away tools and provisions. Apart from the road that Scott was walking, the Americans did not appear inside the country, controlling only the coast and strategically important ports.
Last rout
All summer of 1847, representatives of the Mexican president tried to agree with the US government to end the war. The parties could not reach agreement on the conditions, and the discussion process was constantly inhibited. Meanwhile, Scott's army stopped in Puebla in order to gather strength before the last spurt. Mexico City was already nearby. On August 20, 1847, in a battle near the Churubusko River, the Americans defeated the army of Manuel Rincon.
Having won another victory, Scott's army was only a few kilometers from the capital of Mexico. On September 13, the Americans stormed the Chapultek fortress. Today, this place is considered the center of the city of Mexico City, with about 9 million inhabitants. In the battles for the capital, more than 2,700 US troops were killed, 383 of whom were officers.
Negotiations and peace
In October 1847, the army that occupied Mexico already numbered 43 thousand people. The government was paralyzed, Santa Anna fled the country. And although organized resistance ceased, petty skirmishes of the invaders and partisans continued.
The negotiation process continued for several months. In the USA, the victory turned the head of both the government and society. The demands of the Americans became more serious and insistent. Some hotheads even suggested annexing Mexico as a whole. Against this background, the losing side had to make tremendous concessions and accept all official demands.
The peace treaty was signed on February 2, 1848 in Guadalupe-Hidalgo. In exchange for $ 15 million, Mexico gave the United States more than a million square kilometers of its territory. These were the lands of modern California, Texas, Nevada and Utah. Most of Arizona and New Mexico were lost. The state border proclaimed the Rio Grande River. Victory in the war continued the expansion of the United States to the west. States got access to the Pacific Ocean.