Education in the Russian Empire was fundamentally different from the system that existed during the Soviet Union, especially from the current situation. In pre-revolutionary Russia, it was based on borrowing regulations from various European universities. First of all, German. On their basis, pedagogical and scientific certification was carried out. This article will discuss the history of Russian education and the existing types of educational institutions.
How it all began...
Education in the Russian Empire began to develop actively in the 18th century. This was facilitated by the reforms of Peter I, many of which were aimed at the popularization of sciences, the training of compatriots in Western patterns.
Formally, the date of formation of the Russian Empire is October 22, 1721. It was on this day that it was proclaimed following the results of the completed Northern War. Peter I, by decision of the senators, accepted the titles of the Father of the Fatherland and the emperor. At the same time, long before the day of the formation of the Russian Empire, fundamental changes began to occur in the educational system.
From the very beginning of the 18th century, it became clear that the learning process is changing radically. This primarily concerned theology. His teaching remained only in diocesan schools for the children of the clergy.
In 1701, a school of navigational and mathematical sciences was founded in Moscow. In the same year, an artillery school was opened, and a little later, an engineering and medical school. Since 1715, the classes of the navigation school were transferred to St. Petersburg, reorganizing them into the Maritime Academy. It still exists.
In total, by the year the Russian Empire was formed, 42 digital schools worked in the provinces. They were created by decree of Peter to give basic knowledge. About two thousand students studied in them.
During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, children of soldiers entered garrison schools, and the government founded the first mining schools at metallurgical plants, which trained specialists for these enterprises.
In the 1730s there was a vicious practice of registering children almost from birth so that by the age of majority they would already have an officer rank in seniority. Elizabeth reorganized military schools. Has issued a decree to expand the network of primary schools. The first gymnasiums appeared in Moscow and Kazan. In 1755, at the initiative of her favorite, Count Shuvalov, Moscow University was founded, and two years later the Academy of Arts.
In the education in the Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century, two main trends are visible. This is the strengthening of the principle of estate and the expansion of the network of educational institutions.
Reform of Catherine II
By 1786, the empress completed school reform, the result of which was the adoption of the charter of public schools. In each major city, the main schools with four classes of education were now to appear, and in the district schools, small schools with two classes were to appear.
Subject teaching appeared, uniform deadlines for the start and end of classes were established, a lesson system was developed. The first curricula and teaching methods began to be drawn up.
An important role in this reform was played by a teacher from Serbia Fedor Ivanovich Jankovic. By the end of the XVIII century, up to 70 thousand adolescents studied at 550 schools.
Changes under Alexander I
At the beginning of the 19th century, comprehensive schools existed only in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Kazan. At the same time, there were many specialized educational institutions of various types.
In 1802, the Ministry of Education was founded, which issued a new regulation on the organization of educational institutions. New principles proclaimed the free education in the Russian Empire at the lower levels, the verbosity and continuity of training programs.
All existing educational institutions were divided into four types. The first included parish schools that replaced small public schools. The second included district schools, the third - gymnasium or provincial, and the fourth - universities.
At the beginning of the reign of Alexander I, six universities were opened. The entire territory of the empire was divided into six educational districts with trustees at the head.
In 1804, the University Charter appeared, giving higher education institutions significant autonomy. The university had its own court, the top administration did not have the right to interfere in the affairs of universities, which themselves chose the rector and professors.
The first lyceums began to appear, which were considered secondary university institutions. The Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, where Pushkin studied, also belongs to them.
Estate character
Speaking briefly about education in the Russian Empire, it should be noted that under Nicholas I it assumed a class and closed character. Parish schools were intended for peasants, district schools - for the children of merchants, urban residents and artisans. Grammar schools - only for children of officials and nobles.
A special decree of 1827 even forbade the admission of peasants to universities and gymnasiums. The education system in the Russian Empire at that time was built on the principles of bureaucratic centralization and class.
The school charter of 1828 divided primary and secondary education into categories: for children from lower and middle classes and for children of officials and nobles.
The new university charter of 1835 restricts the autonomy of universities, effectively establishing police supervision of students.
At that time, the network of industrial and technical educational institutions was actively expanding. An architectural school, a technological institute appears.
Reforms accompanying the freedom of the peasantry
The abolition of serfdom in 1861 by Alexander II brought about important changes in the history of education in the Russian Empire. This was facilitated by the affirmation of capitalism and successes in industrial production. During this period, there was a general increase in literacy, the development of various forms of learning.
The new university charter of 1863 returns autonomy to universities, gives independence in financial, administrative and scientific-pedagogical issues. This plays a large role in the development of higher education in the Russian Empire.
In 1864, an all-inclusive education appeared. Along with state schools, Sunday, parish and private schools appear. Grammar schools are divided into real and classic. Now they are accepted, regardless of the estate, but education is paid.
In 1869, the Higher Women's Courses opened - the first educational institutions for women.
The last Russian emperor
Female education continued to develop actively under Nicholas II. However, in comparison with the developed countries of the world, per capita education costs for children still remained meager. If in England they spent 2 rubles 84 kopecks per year, then in Russia - 21 kopecks.
The level of education in the Russian Empire by this time has reached relatively high rates. In 1914, 30% of children aged 8 to 11 attended school. In cities, this figure was close to 50%, while in villages it was just over 20%.
Primary education reform
Moreover, in general, the level of literacy of the lower strata of the population remained extremely low; there was no law on universal compulsory education. According to the 1897 census, only 21% of residents knew the letter.
At the same time, in most countries of Europe it has already been possible to overcome universal illiteracy; universal education already existed. It required universal primary education in the Russian Empire.
In Russia, education reform was discussed by the State Duma until 1912. As a result, it consisted of the introduction of general primary education, which was planned to be organized in half of the provinces by 1918, and throughout the country by the end of the 1920s.
Financing
At the same time, financing of primary education was carried out mainly on donations and at the expense of zemstvos. Loans for public education are growing, by 1904 they are almost doubled in a decade, and the budget of the Ministry of Education is increasing from 22 to 42 million rubles.
After the 1905 revolution, the need for a law on universal primary education was actively discussed in society and at the level of authorities. It is partially approved by 1908. Later take four-year education for all elementary schools.
At the same time, the final discussion of the bill is constantly postponed, dragging on until 1912. As a result, the Council of State finally rejects the bill.
Classification of educational institutions
Speaking briefly about education in the Russian Empire, you need to dwell on all types of educational institutions that existed during this period. Primary schools included volost schools. They exclusively prepared scribes for rural administrations and state chambers.
At the initial stage there were spiritual schools, in which priests were trained for the Russian Orthodox Church, and elementary public schools. The term of study in them was one to two years. Intended for people with low earnings, since training in them remained free. Mostly opened in rural areas, under the jurisdiction of the Zemsky Council.
Primary education was also given by parish schools, which were under the spiritual authority. The intermediate position between primary and secondary education was occupied by urban schools, which were originally called county schools. They were supposed to provide full education to the poor, but classes were organized for a fee.
Secondary schools
The most common secondary educational institution in the Russian Empire is a gymnasium. Tuition fees in it were available to most segments of the population. Moreover, the gymnasiums were both public and private. Women and men studied separately.
The first secular secondary school in Russia appeared in 1726. She earned at the Academy of Sciences. At that time, for admission it was necessary to consist in a taxable estate. Since 1864, real and classical gymnasiums were established. They studied in classical for eight years, and after graduation they had the right to go to university, since they studied the Latin language.
Separately, there were additional preparatory classes at the gymnasiums, which were intended only to give primary education. At the same time, they could prepare them for admission to the gymnasium.
Real school
Unlike classical gymnasiums, real ones focused on the study of applied disciplines, primarily the natural-mathematical cycle. They were originally created to spread technical education to the masses. Since 1864, they became a preparatory stage for those wishing to enter universities. After the adoption of the charter of 1872, their mission radically changed.
From then on, they were given the education necessary only for work in industry and commerce. The term of study was six years. Theological seminaries were secondary schools for future priests. At full board, secondary schools for the future military are created - cadet corps.
Higher education institutions
The basis of higher education in the Russian Empire was universities. By the beginning of the 20th century, they existed in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Derpt, Kazan, Kiev, Kharkov, Odessa, Novorossiysk, Tomsk and Warsaw.
Secular higher educational institutions - institutes also worked. They mainly trained specialists in the natural sciences and engineering industries.
In the Russian Orthodox Church, theological institutions were theological seminaries. The first was Moscow, which appeared in 1685. For a long time it was called the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.
Officers received military education on the basis of academies. At the school of navigation and mathematical sciences, they prepared for service in artillery. The first exclusively military educational institution was opened in Gatchina in 1795.
Private schools
Private schools played an important role in this system. For example, Sunday, in which training was carried out once a week. In the Russian Empire, such educational institutions were organized by intellectuals for illiterate workers, artisans, peasants, as well as working teenagers who wanted to get an education.