Few know about the state of the Sassanids, but it was a powerful empire. It was located on the territory of modern Iran and Iraq. The Sassanids empire, its formation, dynasty and possessions will be discussed in this article.
Occurrence
The Sassanids are a whole dynasty of Shahinshahs (Persian rulers) who formed the Sassanid Empire in 224 in the Middle East. This genus came from Fars (Parsa), the current territory in southern Iran. The dynasty was named after Sasan, the father of the first king Fars (Pars) named Papak. Ardashir I, the son of Papak, defeated the Parthian king Artaban V in 224, and then founded a new state. It began to expand gradually, conquering and annexing new territories.
In the 3rd century AD e. Iran was a state that was nominally united under the rule of the Arshakids (Parthian dynasty). In fact, it was a confederation consisting of various disparate and semi-independent, and often independent kingdoms and principalities, headed by princes from a large local nobility. Civil wars and various internal clashes that took place constantly, significantly weakened Iran. In addition, the Roman Empire, with its military power during its expansion to the East, forced the Iranians and Parthians to cede to it several regions in the north of Mesopotamia.
Ardashir I took advantage of this situation when in the middle of April 224 he defeated the army of Artaban V. The army of Ardashir I was experienced, before this campaign it conquered significant territories: Parsu, Kerman, Khuzistan and Isfahan.
After the victory in the battle that took place on the plain of Ormizdagan in order to lead Iran and create an empire of the Sassanids, Ardashir I had to subdue 80 other local princes by force of his army and seize their lands.
Territory Joining
Despite the fact that Fars was magnificently rebuilt and had many beautifully decorated palaces (some rock carvings have survived to the present), he did not play a major role in the state. Two capitals were formed at once - Ktesifon and Seleucia - “cities on the Tigris river”.
In the west of the Sassanid state, the most fertile lands were located, a large number of cities were built. There were also trade routes connecting the empire with the Mediterranean harbors in its western part. There was access to such states as Caucasian Albania, Armenia, Iveria (Iberia) and Lazika. In the east of the country, in the Persian Gulf, there was a sea exit to India and southern Arabia.
In 226, Ardashir I was crowned with triumph, after which he received the title "king of kings" - the shahinshah. After the coronation, Ardashir I did not stop at the victories achieved and continued the expansion of the empire. At first the Median state, the city of Hamadan and the Khorasan and Sakastan regions were subordinated. Then he sent his army to Atropatena, which he won after fierce resistance. After the victory in Atropatene, most of Armenia was captured.
There is evidence that the Sassanid empire was subordinated to Margiana, also known as the Merv oasis, as well as Mekran and Sistan. It turns out that the border of the empire extended to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River, in the part where the areas of Khorezm were located. The east of the state was limited to the valley of the Kabul river. Part of the Kushan kingdom was also occupied, which gave rise to the titles of the Sassanid rulers to add “King Kushan”.
Social order
Studying the power of the Sassanids, one should consider its political structure. At the head of the empire stood the shahinshah, who came from a reigning dynasty. Succession did not have strict canons, so the reigning shahinshah tried to appoint a successor during his lifetime. However, this did not guarantee that there would be no difficulties in transferring power.
The throne of the Shahinshah could be occupied only by one who came from the Sassanid dynasty. In other words, their race was essentially considered royal. They had the patrimonial inheritance of the throne, however, the priests did their best to remove them from the throne.
A special role in the succession to the throne was played by mobedan mobu - the high priest. His power and position actually competed with the powers of the Shahinshah. In view of this, the latter tried in every possible way to weaken the influence and power of the high priest.
After the shahinshah and mobobed mobu, the shahradra had a high position and power in the state. This is the ruler (king) in areas that had independence and were subordinate only to representatives of the Sassanid dynasty. Rulers in the provinces since the 5th century were called marzlans. In the entire history of the state, four marzlans were called great and had the title of Shah.
Lower in rank after the shahrdars were the flies. They represented seven very ancient Iranian dynasties, which had hereditary rights and had serious weight in the state. In general, representatives of these clans occupied important, and sometimes key, state and military posts, which were inherited.
Vizurgs (vuzurgs) are representatives of the highest ranks in the administration and military administration of the state, who had large land ownership and were considered nobles. In the sources they are mentioned with such epithets as “great”, “noble”, “big” and “eminent”. Of course, the shrieks played a significant role in the state of the Sassanids.
Army
The Sassanid army was officially called the "Army of Rustam" ("Rostam"). It was formed by Ardashir I, who was the founder of the dynasty. The army was created from a revived Ahmenid military structure, with the inclusion of elements from Parthian military affairs.
The army was organized on the principle of the decimal system, that is, its structural units were units that numbered ten, one hundred, one thousand, ten thousand soldiers. From the sources the names of structural units are known:
- Radag - ten warriors.
- Tahm is a hundred.
- Vast - five hundred.
- Drafs - a thousand.
- Grund - five thousand.
- Spah - ten thousand.
The tahm division was subordinate to the officer, who had the title of tahmdar, then ascending - vast-salar, drafs-salar, grund-salar and spah-troubles. The latter, being a general, was subordinate to the arteshtaran-salar, who came from the vispuhra, they were mentioned earlier.
The main striking force of the Sassanian army was cavalry. Elephants, infantry, and infantry archers were also present in the army, but they played secondary roles and, in fact, were an auxiliary force.
The history of the army is divided into two periods - from Ardashir I and after Khosrov I, who carried out the reform of the army. The fundamental difference between these periods is that before the reform, it was irregular, and the princes had their own squads. After the reform carried out by Khosrov I Anushirvan, the army became regular, and most importantly - professional.
Other representatives of society
Continuing to study the history of the Sassanid empire, other aspects of the state system should be considered. The largest and most widespread group were small and medium landowners - Azatians (in translation - “free”). They were liable for military service and during wars and campaigns they represented the core of the army - the glorified cavalry.
In addition to these groups, which belonged to the exploiting class in society, there was also the exploited. The so-called taxable estate was represented by peasants and artisans, as well as merchants.
There are no sources indicating that there was corvée in the Sassanid kingdom, therefore, the landowner could not have his own plow or could, but its quantity was very small. There is also practically no information on how the work and life of peasants was organized, but it is known that some groups of farmers used the land on a rental basis.
The affairs of merchants, artisans and peasants were supervised by the vastriosansalar. In addition, he was responsible for collecting taxes. Vastrioshansalar came from a noble family and was appointed directly by the shahinshah. In some areas of the empire, amarkars, subordinate to the Vastrianshanal, were engaged in the collection of taxes. The position of the Amarkars was given to large landowners or representatives of a noble family.
Estates
Studying the history of the Sassanids, it is necessary to take into account various sources. So, for example, some of them say that Ardashir I established the division of subjects into estates, of which there were four:
- Asravans (priests). There were a number of different ranks, the highest being a mob. Then came the rank of dadhwar (judges). The most numerous were the priests-magicians, who occupied the lowest level among the worshipers.
- Arteshtarans (military estate). Their number included foot and horse warriors. Cavalry was created only from the privileged sections of society, and only representatives of a noble family became military leaders.
- Dibherans (estate of scribes). Its representatives were mainly government officials. However, it also included professions such as doctors, biographers, secretaries, poets, writers and drafters of diplomatic documentation.
- Vastrioshan and Hutuhshan are peasants and artisans, representatives of the lowest class in the empire. This also included traders, merchants and representatives of other professions.
It should be noted that within each of the estates of the power of the Sassanids there were a huge number of differences and gradations. A large number of options were present both in property and in economic terms. No unity of groups existed and could not exist in principle.
Religion
The traditional religion of the Sassanids was Zoroastrianism. After his coronation, Ardashir I received the Zoroastrian title of king and founded the temple of fire, which later became the general state sanctuary.
During his reign, Ardashir I concentrated in his hands not only military, civil, but also religious power. The Sassanids worshiped Ahura Mazda - the "Wise God" who created everything around, and Zarathushtra was considered his prophet, who also showed people the path to purity and righteousness.
The first religious reformer, Kartir, was originally a Herbed (a teacher in the temple) who taught future priests to Zoroastrian rituals. He rose after the death of Ardashir I, at the time when Shapur I began to rule. Kartir, on behalf of the Shahinshah, began to organize new Zoroastrian temples in the conquered territories.
Gradually, he took a high position in the empire, subsequently becoming the spiritual mentor of the grandson of Shapur I - Varahran. In the future, Kartir begins to believe in his destiny so much that he creates a new religion - mani, considering himself a prophet along with Zarathushtra. It develops under the influence of the Sassanids' discovery of Buddhism and Christianity in the occupied lands.
Mani recognized the Last Judgment, but was different from Zoroastrianism. Although it was originally adopted, after the death of Kartira is recognized as heresy, Zoroastrianism again becomes the main religion of the empire.
Culture
The art of the Sassanids appears as if suddenly. During the reign of the first five shahinshahs, 30 huge rocky reliefs are created in different regions of Fars (Parsa). On reliefs, as well as on Sassanid coins, special seals carved from stone, and bowls of silver, for some several decades, new canons of art were formed for the empire.
An “official image” of the shahinshahs, priests, and nobles appears. A separate direction appeared in the image of deities and religious symbols. The conquered territories, as well as China, with which trade was conducted, influence the formation of a new direction in Sasanian art.
On the coat of arms of the Sassanids is a Simurg with a fiery tongue placed in a dotted circle. He appeared under the founder of the empire - Ardashir I. Simurg is a mythical winged sea dog, which is interesting, his body is covered with fish scales. For all his unusual appearance, he also has a peacock tail. This symbol of the Sassanids marks the era of the reign of kings belonging to two dynasties - Arshakids and Sassanids. Simurg himself is a symbol of dominance over the three elements - air, earth and water.
In Sasanian art you can find cave paintings of winged bulls, lions, griffins, as well as fights between these mythical animals. Similar images have been preserved since the time of the Achmenids, although much was acquired on the newly captured lands.
The fight against the Sassanids
The struggle against the empire continued throughout the years of its existence. Periodically, rebellions broke out in one of the many areas of the state and attempts were made to throw off the Sassanid yoke. However, thanks to a professional army, all these performances were quickly suppressed.
Nevertheless, events also occurred that forced the Sassanids to retreat or simply surrender. So, for example, the case is known when King Poroz (Peroz), who ruled at the end of the fifth century, was defeated by the Ephtalites. Moreover, after the defeat of his army, he still had to pay a huge indemnity, which, in fact, was also shameful.
Poroz places the burden of payment on the Transcaucasian regions of his state. These events entailed a new wave of discontent, and an uprising broke out with great force. Moreover, a considerable part of the nobility joined the uprising. The uprising was led by King Kartli Vakhtang I, nicknamed "Gorgasal," which stands for "wolf head." He received such a nickname thanks to the wolf depicted on the helmet. Also, the uprising joined Vakhan Mamikomyan sparapet (supreme commander) of Armenia.
After a long fierce war, the next shahshah of the Sassanid empire - Valash - was forced to sign a peace treaty with the nobility of the Transcaucasian countries in 484. According to this document, the countries of Transcaucasia received self-government, privileges and rights of the nobility, as well as the Christian clergy. The local nobility becomes the head of the countries, in Armenia - Vahan Mamikonyan, and in Albania the old tsarist authority is restored.
Despite the fact that this agreement was soon violated, these were the first messengers of the end of the Sassanid era.
Empire sunset
Yazdegerd III was the last Shahinshah in the Sassanid state. He ruled from 632 to 651 years, which were very difficult for a very young ruler. Yazdegerd III was the grandson of Khosrov II, with whom one legend is associated.
He was predicted that the empire would fall if his grandson ascended to the throne with some physical disability. Then Khosrov II ordered to lock all his sons, depriving them of the opportunity to communicate with women. However, one of Shahinshah’s wives helped her son Shakhriyar leave the prison, and he met with a girl whose name is currently unknown. As a result of their meetings, a boy was born, and Shahinshah’s wife Shirin told Khosrov about his grandson. The king ordered to show the baby, and when he saw a flaw on his thigh, he ordered to kill him. However, the child was not killed, but was estranged from the yard, settling in Sathra, where he grew up.
At the time when Yazdegerd III was crowned and he became a shahinshah, Saad Abu Wakas in the spring, in 633, united the Muslim army and allied tribes and attacked Obolla and Hira. In principle, from this time it is possible to count the beginning of the fall of the Sassanids. Many scholars argue that this was the beginning of a large-scale Arab expansion undertaken to force all Arabs to accept the Islamic faith.
Arab troops captured the city outside the city, but once the invincible Sassanid army could not lose to the attackers. Occasionally, the Iranians managed to win, but they were insignificant and short-lived. The Sassanids, among other things, often robbed local residents, which forced the latter to accept Islam in order to receive the protection they promised.
State collapse
In 636, a decisive battle took place, which, in fact, decided the course of further events. At the battle of Cadizia, the Sassanids assembled a superbly armed army of just over 40 thousand people. And also there were more than 30 fighting elephants. With the help of such an army, it was possible to push back the Muslim army and occupy Hira.
For several months, the army of Saad Abu Wakkas and the Sassanid army did not take any action. The invaders were offered a ransom so that they left Iranian lands, even tried to resolve the issue at the court of the Shahinshah Yazdegerd III, but this did not bring any result.
Muslims demanded that the Sassanids give them the previously conquered lands, guarantee free passage in the direction of Mesopotamia, and also accept Islam to the Shahinshah and his nobles. However, the Iranians could not agree to such conditions and, in the end, the conflict again entered a hot phase.
The battle lasted four days and was extremely fierce, reinforcements regularly came to one and the other side, and as a result the Arabs defeated the Sassanid army. Moreover, Wahman Jazvayh and Rustam, who were the commanders of the Iranian army, were killed. Rustam, in addition to being a skilled military leader, was the support of the throne and friend of the Shahinshah. Also in the hands of the Arabs was the “Kave banner” - an Iranian shrine adorned with hundreds of precious stones.
After this difficult victory, one of the capitals, Ctesiphon, was defeated. Arabs captured the city outside the city, the Iranians said that higher forces help the invaders. After the fall of the capital, the shahinshah with a court and a treasury fled to Hulvan. The extraction of the Arabs was incredible, 48 kg of silver for each rider, and 4 kg for the infantryman, and this after paying 5% of the caliph to the caliph.
After that there were victories in Nehawand, Fars, Sakastan and Kerman. The Arab army could no longer be stopped, and the fall of the Sassanids became obvious even to themselves. There were still areas and areas under their rule, but they were also captured as the Arab army advanced. Periodically subjugated areas of the former empire rebelled, but riots were quickly suppressed.
Subsequently, in 656, the son of Yazdegerd III - Peroz, supported by the Chinese empire of Tang, tried to restore his rights in the territory and was declared the Shahinshah of Tokharistan. For this insolence, Caliph Ali defeated Peroz’s troops with his Chinese soldiers, and the latter was forced to flee to China, where he later died.
His son Nasra, again with the Chinese, captured Balkh for a while, but was defeated by the Arabs, like his father. He retreated to China, where his traces, like the dynasties as a whole, were lost. And so ended the era of the Sassanids, who once had a huge influence, possessed vast territories and did not know defeats at all, until they met with the Arab army.