For many centuries, the main sources of knowledge about how the ancient Germans lived and what they did were the works of Roman historians and politicians: Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Julius Caesar, Tacitus, as well as some church writers. Along with reliable information, these books and notes contained speculation and exaggeration. In addition, ancient authors did not always delve into the politics, history and culture of the barbarian tribes. They recorded mainly that which “lay on the surface”, or that which made the strongest impression on them. Of course, all these works give a pretty good idea of the life of Germanic tribes at the turn of the era. However, during later archaeological excavations, it was found that the ancient authors, describing the beliefs and life of the ancient Germans, missed a lot. Which, however, does not detract from their merits.
The origin and distribution of Germanic tribes
Germanic tribes are Indo-European. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the Pragerman language stood out from the Indo-European, and the Germanic ethnos was formed in the 6th-1st centuries BC. e., although not conclusively. The original lands of the Germanic peoples are recognized as the river basins of the Oder, Rhine and Elbe. There were a lot of tribes. They did not have a single name and for the time being did not realize their relationship with each other. It makes sense to list some of them. So, in the territory of modern Scandinavia, the Dans, Gautas and Sveis lived. To the east of the Elbe River were located the possessions of the Goths, Vandals and Burgundians. These tribes were not lucky: they suffered greatly from the invasion of the Huns, were scattered around the world and assimilated. And between the Rhine and the Elbe, the Teutons, Saxons, Angles, Batavs, Franks settled. They gave rise to modern Germans, British, Dutch, French. In addition to the mentioned ones, there were also utes, friezes, cherusks, germunduras, cimbri, sveva, bastarn and many others. Ancient germans migrated mainly from north to south, or rather, to the southwest, which threatened the Roman provinces. They also willingly mastered the eastern (Slavic) lands.
The first mention of the Germans
The ancient world learned about warlike tribes in the middle of the 4th century BC. e. from the notes of the seafarer Pythia, who ventured to make a trip to the shores of the North (German) sea. Then the Germans loudly declared themselves at the end of the 2nd century BC. e.: the tribes of the Teutons and the Cimbri who left Jutland fell upon Gaul and reached the alpine region of Italy.
Gaius Marius managed to stop them, but from that moment the empire began to vigilantly monitor the activity of dangerous neighbors. In turn, the Germanic tribes began to unite in order to strengthen their military power. In the middle of the 1st century BC. e. Julius Caesar during the Gallic War defeated the Suevian tribe. The Romans reached Elba, and a little later - to Weser. It was at this time that scientific papers began to appear that described the life and religion of rebellious tribes. In them (with Caesar’s light hand) the term “Germans” began to be used. By the way, this is by no means a self-name. The origin of the word is Celtic. "German" is a "close living neighbor." An ancient tribe of Germans, or rather its name - “Teutons”, was also used by scientists as a synonym.
Germans and their neighbors
In the west and south, the Celts coexisted with the Germans. Their material culture was higher. Outwardly, representatives of these nationalities were similar. The Romans often confused them, and sometimes even considered them to be one people. However, the Celts and Germans are not relatives. The similarity of their culture is determined by their close proximity, mixed marriages, and trade.
In the east, the Germans bordered on the Slavs, Baltic tribes and Finns. Of course, all these nationalities influenced each other. It can be traced in the language, customs, methods of farming. Modern Germans are descendants of the Slavs and Celts assimilated by the Germans. The Romans noted the high growth of the Slavs and Germans, as well as light or light red hair and blue (or gray) eyes. In addition, representatives of these peoples had a similar skull shape, which was discovered during archaeological excavations.
Slavs and ancient Germans astonished Roman researchers not only with the beauty of physique and facial features, but also with endurance. True, the former were always considered more peaceful, while the latter were aggressive and reckless.
Appearance
As already mentioned, the Germans seemed effete Romans mighty and tall. Free men wore long hair and did not shave their beards. In some tribes, it was customary to tie the hair on the back of the head. But in any case, they should have been long, because cut hair is a sure sign of a slave. The clothes of the Germans were mostly simple, at first quite rough. They preferred leather tunics, woolen capes. Both men and women were hardened: even in the cold they wore shirts with short sleeves. The ancient German did not unreasonably believe that excess clothing fetters movement. For this reason, the soldiers did not even have armor. Helmets, however, were, although not all.
Unmarried German women walked with their hair loose, married women covered their hair with a woolen net. This headdress was purely symbolic. Shoes for men and women were the same: leather sandals or boots, woolen windings. Clothes were decorated with brooches and buckles.
The social system of the ancient Germans
The socio-political institutions of the Germans were not difficult. At the turn of the century, these tribes had a clan system. It is also called primitive communal. In this system, it is not the individual who matters, but the gender. It is formed by blood relatives who live in the same village, jointly cultivate the land and take each other an oath of blood feud. Several clans make up a tribe. The ancient Germans made all important decisions, collecting the ting. That was the name of the tribal assembly. Important decisions were made at the ting: they redistributed communal lands between genera, tried criminals, resolved disputes, concluded peace treaties, declared war and gathered militias. Here, young men were consecrated to war and elected as necessary military leaders - the dukes. Only free men were allowed to the ting, but not every one of them had the right to make speeches (this was allowed only to the elders and the most respected members of the clan / tribe). The Germans had patriarchal slavery. Not free possessed some rights, had property, lived in the owner’s house. They could not be killed with impunity.
Military organization
The history of the ancient Germans is full of conflicts. Men devoted much time to the military business. Even before the start of systematic campaigns on Roman lands, the Germans formed a tribal elite - the edeling. Edeling became people who distinguished themselves in battle. It cannot be said that they had any special rights, but they had authority.
Initially, the Germans chose ("raised to the shield") the dukes only in the event of a military threat. But at the beginning of the Great Migration of Peoples, they began to elect kings (kungs) from the edeling for life. The Konungs stood at the head of the tribes. They acquired permanent squads and endowed them with everything necessary (as a rule, at the end of a successful campaign). Loyalty to the leader was exceptional. The ancient German considered it dishonorable to return from the battle in which the king fell. In this situation, the only way out was suicide.
In the army of the Germans there was a clan principle. This meant that relatives always fought shoulder to shoulder. Perhaps it is this feature that determines the ferocity and fearlessness of warriors.
The Germans fought on foot. The cavalry appeared late, the Romans were of little opinion about it. The main weapon of the warrior was a spear (framey). Widespread was the famous knife of the ancient German - Sax. Then a throwing ax and spatha appeared - a double-edged Celtic sword.
Household
Ancient historians often described the Germans as nomadic herders. Moreover, it was believed that men were engaged exclusively in war. Archaeological research of the 19-20th centuries showed that everything was somewhat different. Firstly, they led a sedentary lifestyle, engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture. The community of ancient Germans owned meadows, pastures and fields. True, the latter were few in number, since most of the territories subject to the Germans were occupied by forests. However, the Germans grew oats, rye and barley. But raising cows and sheep was a priority. The Germans did not have money, their wealth was measured by the number of livestock. Of course, the Germans were perfectly able to process the skin and actively traded them. They also made fabrics of wool and linen.
They mastered the extraction of copper, silver and iron, but few owned blacksmithing. Over time, the Germans learned to melt Damascus steel and make swords of very high quality. However, the Saxon, the combat knife of the ancient German, did not go out of use.
Beliefs
Information about the religious views of the barbarians, which managed to get Roman historians, is very scarce, contradictory and foggy. Tacitus writes that the Germans deified the forces of nature, especially the sun. Over time, natural phenomena began to personify. Thus appeared, for example, the cult of Donar (Thor), the god of thunder.
Very respected by the Germans Tivaz, the patron saint of soldiers. According to Tacitus, they performed human sacrifices in his honor. In addition, weapons and armor of slain enemies were dedicated to him. In addition to the "common" gods (Donar, Vodan, Tiwaz, Fro), each tribe praised the "personal", lesser-known deities. The Germans did not build temples: it was customary to pray in the forests (sacred groves) or in the mountains. It must be said that the traditional religion of the ancient Germans ( those who lived on the mainland) was relatively quickly supplanted by Christianity. The Germans learned about Christ as early as the 3rd century thanks to the Romans. But on the Scandinavian peninsula paganism lasted a long time. It is reflected in folklore works that were recorded during the Middle Ages ("Elder Edda" and "Younger Edda").
Culture and art
The Germans respected priests and diviners with respect and respect. Priests accompanied the troops on campaigns. They were charged with the obligation to conduct religious rituals (sacrifices), turn to the gods, punish criminals and cowards. Soothsayers were engaged in fortune-telling: on the insides of sacred animals and defeated enemies, on flowing blood and the neighing of horses.
The ancient Germans willingly created jewelry made of metal in the "animal style", borrowed, presumably, from the Celts, but they did not have the tradition of depicting the gods. Very rough, conditional statues of deities found in peat bogs were of exclusively ritual significance. They do not represent artistic value. Nevertheless, the Germans skillfully decorated furniture and household items.
According to historians, the ancient Germans loved music, which was an indispensable attribute of feasts. They played flutes and lyres, performed songs.
The Germans used runic writing. Of course, it was not intended for long coherent texts. Runes had a sacred meaning. With their help, people turned to the gods, tried to predict the future, cast spells. Short runic inscriptions are found on stones, household items, on weapons and shields. Without a doubt, the religion of the ancient Germans was reflected in the runic script. The Scandinavians runes existed until the 16th century.
Interaction with Rome: War and Trade
Germania Magna, or Greater Germany, was never a Roman province. At the turn of the epochs, as already mentioned, the Romans conquered the tribes living east of the Rhine River. But in the year 9 A.D. e. the Roman legions under the command of Cherusch Arminius (Herman) were defeated in the Teutoburg Forest, and the Imperials remembered this lesson for a long time.
The border between enlightened Rome and wild Europe began to run along the Rhine, Danube and Limes. Here the Romans housed troops, erected fortifications and founded the cities that exist to this day (for example, Mainz - Mogontiacum, and Vindobona (Vienna)).
The ancient Germans and the Roman Empire did not always fight each other. Until the middle of the 3rd century AD e. peoples coexisted relatively peacefully. At this time, trade, or rather, exchange, developed. The Germans supplied the Romans with dressed leather, furs, slaves, amber and in return received luxury goods and weapons. Little by little, they were even used to using money. Individual tribes had privileges: for example, the right to trade on Roman soil. Many men became mercenaries with the Roman emperors.
However, the invasion of the Huns (nomads from the east), which began in the 4th century BC. e., "pushed" the Germans from their homes, and they again rushed to the imperial territories.
Ancient Germans and the Roman Empire: Final
By the time the Great Migration of Nations began, the powerful German kungs began to unite the tribes: at first with the aim of protecting them from the Romans, and then with the goal of capturing and plundering their provinces. In the 5th century, the entire Western empire was captured. The barbarian kingdoms of the Ostrogoths, Franks, Anglo-Saxons were erected on its ruins. The Eternal City itself was besieged and plundered several times during this turbulent century. Especially distinguished tribes of vandals. In 476 AD e. Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor, was forced to abdicate under the pressure of the mercenary Odoacre.
The social system of the ancient Germans finally changed. From the communal system, the barbarians switched to feudalism. The Middle Ages arrived.