The war for Spanish possessions in the Pacific and West Indies lasted only a few months, but during this time Spain lost its territories and received a painful blow to national pride. This conflict is rarely mentioned, although the topic has a wonderful source database. Professionalism and substantiveness is different, for example, the report on the Cuban business trip of the Russian colonel Y. Zhilinsky. Information of other military men who were observers at opposing armies is also valuable.
War preceding events
By the end of the nineteenth century, Cuban society had undergone fundamental social changes. After the abolition of slavery in 1886, Cuban slaves engaged in agriculture or joined the urban working class. Wealthy Cubans lost their property. The number of sugar factories decreased, and only a few giants remained on the market.
The United States began to invest in Cuba (this applies to sugar, mining and tobacco). The Spanish colony gradually became economically dependent on the United States, which became the main consumer of sugar from Cuba. Aware of the danger of losing their colonies, Spain increased import duties on imports by 25%. This was beneficial for Spain, but not for Cuba or the United States. In response, the States increased duties on raw sugar and tobacco, Cuba's main export earnings.
As a result of the economic war between the states and Spain, the colonies risked being left without distribution channels on the verge of an economic catastrophe. The metropolis was forced to make concessions. After the conclusion of the Canovas-Foster agreement, the trade war ceased, Cuban goods began to be freely delivered to the United States, and American money flowed into Cuba.
The massive anti-Spanish uprising in Cuba began in 1895. Spain, despite the mobilization of 150 thousand people, could not cope with the rebels. In the United States, they sought to support the rebel forces, which was largely due to the economic interests of the Americans in Cuba. During 1895-1897, more than sixty expeditions of American volunteers took place to support the uprising. Already from these facts, some reasons for the Spanish-American war of 1898 are visible.
The explosion of the American cruiser "Maine"
The reason for the beginning of a large-scale military conflict between Spain and the United States was the explosion of the cruiser, who sent Washington to Havana to protect American citizens in Cuba. Hispanophobic sentiments after the fifteenth of February 1898, when an explosion occurred, began to grow rapidly. Another fact contributed to this: a week before the incident, the newspapers published a provocative appeal by the Spanish ambassador to the United States, in which he spoke extremely dismissively of the American president.
Spain was invited to remove troops from Cuba and recognize the sovereignty of the colony. To achieve this goal as soon as possible, the American president was advised to use armed forces. Spain was given until April twenty-third. The blockade of Cuba by the forces of the American Navy began the day before the end of this period. On April 23, Spain declared war on the United States of America. Thus began the last war of the 19th century.
The forces of the parties during the declaration of war
Almost all the battles of the 1898 Spanish-American war took place at sea. The advantage of the American Navy was overwhelming. Spain at the time of the declaration of war had only one armadillo, seven cruisers (armored), five heavy cruisers and three light. The US forces included three armored cruisers, four armadillos, eleven heavy and eight light cruisers. The US advantage in total displacement is 116 thousand tons compared to 56 thousand tons. The American Navy was superior to the Spanish in all respects.
The Spaniards had a powerful army and a sufficient fleet, but the latter was neglected and inferior to the American in terms of training. The United States had virtually inexhaustible financial resources, rich industry, and a strong fleet, but their army was small. The size of the garrison stationed by Spain in Cuba was four times the entire composition of the American standing army. It took some time for the United States to form and train the necessary forces and relocate the fleet that was in Chinese waters. For this, it was planned to establish a blockade of Cuba.
Spain and United States Plans
In the Spanish-American War of 1898, the goal of the US aspirations was the colonies of Spain - the Philippine Islands and the island of Cuba. Possession of Cuba would give the United States a predominance in the waters of the Atlantic Ocean on the approaches to the Isthmus of Panama. This channel was of great importance because it could give the shortest path between the western and eastern coasts of America and would connect both oceans. Prior to this, the Americans several times offered Spain to redeem Cuba, but invariably were refused.
The Philippine Islands off the coast of Asia also attracted the attention of Americans who were interested in the Far Eastern region, where American capital was firmly established. These islands could finally consolidate the economic achievements of the United States in the Far East. The Spanish-American War of 1898 was one of the initial stages of the escalation of the Pacific conflict, because the interests of Japan, the United States, and European states clashed in the Pacific.
Spain, on the other hand, began to lose the colonies that inherited from the era of the great geographical discoveries. The country did not have sufficient economic and military resources to retain territories. This time, Cuba and the Philippines were next in line, who became the objects of imperialistic lust for the stronger United States of America.
Military operations in the West Indies
Military operations on the islands of the Caribbean began in the evening of April 22, 1898, when two American battleships, five destroyers and ten cruisers entered the outer raid of Havana and opened fire on coastal batteries. The Americans managed to capture the Spanish ship Buenaventura, but the command as a priority task ordered the combat formations to destroy the main forces of the Spanish fleet. To protect its own coast of the Atlantic Ocean, a "flyover" was formed under the command of Schley.
The US military command provided for the conquest of dominance at sea, and only after that was it planned to switch to landing operations. At the first stage of the war, troops probed the Spanish defense on the northern coast of Cuba. Despite the fact that the Spanish flotilla on that site consisted mainly of old boats, and its commander was very indecisive, the Spaniards still managed to repel several American attacks.
In the first half of May, US forces attempted to land on the south coast of Cuba to destroy the telegraph station that connected the island to the outside world. The Spanish coastal defense repelled the landing, and the American side even suffered losses. A few days later, the American cruiser still cut the telegraph cable. This action did not matter, because the British, who owned the line, sealed and partially disassembled the equipment, while they themselves fled to the mainland at the very beginning of the war.
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
On July 2, local commanders received orders to break the blockade. One of the reasons was the food shortage of the besieged. When Spanish ships tried to break through American forces, a large-scale naval battle took place. The Spaniards were almost completely destroyed. Losses of Americans: one killed, ten wounded and injured. Spain lost a lot more people: more than three hundred dead, one hundred and fifty wounded, more than one and a half thousand prisoners. Only one hundred and fifty sailors were able to return to Santiago, but they were soon forced to surrender.
An even harder blow for the weakened metropolis was the complete destruction of the fleet participating in the battle. At Santiago de Cuba, the best ships fought. This defeat meant not only the final defeat in the war, but also the actual loss of maritime power status. The US Navy was recognized as one of the leading in the world after this battle. But the Americans were reminded of the disorganization and low accuracy of shooting at the beginning of the battle. The US forces managed to win the victory only because of the obvious superiority of human forces and the almost complete absence of military training of the Spanish fleet.
A few days later, the bombing of Santiago began and the city surrendered. In total, 24 thousand Spanish soldiers surrendered in the south of the island. Already in early August, the US military, together with the Cuban rebels, completely captured Cuba. As early as the end of July, another 16,000 US troops were landed in southern Puerto Rico. The offensive began, as a result of which the entire western part of the island was occupied. During the capture of Puerto Rico, the US military lost twenty-eight people wounded and only five people were killed. These are scanty losses.
Military operations in the Philippines
Anti-Spanish uprisings began in the Philippines, as did Cuba. The Americans took advantage of this to strengthen their influence in the region. On April 30, an American squadron consisting of six cruisers approached Manila Bay. At dawn on May 1, the squadron approached Manila. It turned out that there were only merchant ships in the bay, so the Americans turned south, where they found ten outdated ships.
There was a battle in which all the Spanish ships were destroyed. Five ships were flooded by their own teams. American ships in this battle did not even receive a single serious damage. After this incident, the Americans entered into an agreement with Filipino rebels against the Spaniards. Within a month, the Spanish resistance was broken. The independence of the Philippine Republic was proclaimed on July 3rd.
The Spaniards controlled only part of the archipelago, but most were controlled by Filipino rebels. Spanish troops suffered one defeat after another. For the time being under the authority of the colonial administration, only one large island remained - Negros. After reinforcements arrived from the United States, American and Philippine forces jointly launched an assault. After only four hours, the Spaniards capitulated.
The capture of the island of Guam by the Americans
By the time the Spanish-American War of 1898 began, there were no serious defensive structures on the island as unnecessary. After the first active hostilities at this military theater, the US Navy command attracted the Charleston armored cruiser, who led the expedition to capture Guam. At the end of June 1898, Charleston arrived at the island.
Only one Japanese ship could be seen in the harbor. At this time, onlookers and officials gathered on the shore. From the American ship several shots were fired at the old fortress, but no visible damage was visible and no return fire was given. The shells flew by, and the captain of the island’s marine corps said the Americans were saluting, and sent a messenger to the capital with a message for the governor to give a salute in response. The island delegation headed for the American ship.
When the Spaniards boarded the Charleston, they learned that there was a war between the USA and Spain, and the cruiser arrived to capture Guam. Spanish officials were declared prisoners of war, and the captain’s cabin immediately began discussing the terms of surrender, which took place the next day. More than fifty soldiers and two lieutenants of the local garrison as prisoners of war were brought aboard the American ship. Also, Americans captured trophies (weapons).
Commanders of the Spanish and American sides
During the war, the United States took command of operations Nelson Appleton Miles, William Sampson, William Shafter, George Dewey. From Spain, they led the actions of the personnel of Patricio Montogo i Pasaron, Arsenio Linares, Ramon Blanco i Erenas, Manuel Macias i Casado. Separately, it is worth mentioning Pasquale Server-and-Topete, who, by order of senior management, was desperately trying to break through the American blockade.
American General Nelson Miles had previously participated in the Civil War and in many campaigns against the Indians. During the Spanish-American War of 1898, the commander served as head of the Union Army. William Sampson (Sampson) also participated in the Civil War, then served in the Navy, represented the United States at an international conference in Washington, and for some time led the submarine base in Newport. During the war, commanded a blockade of Cuba and destroyed the Spanish fleet at Santiago de Cuba.
George Dewey is associated with the victory of the Americans in Manila Bay. And this is the only person in history who has been awarded the highest military rank of the US Navy - Admiral of the Navy. Before the war with Spain, Cuba and the Philippines participated in the blockade and capture of New Orleans (times of the Civil War in the USA).
On the side of the United States, the head of the liberation movement in Cuba, Maximo Gomez-i-Baez, spoke. He had military experience, because he participated in the predatory war against the Dominican Republic on the side of Spain in 1861-1865. After the defeat, he left the Dominican Republic and settled with his family in Cuba. When the uprising broke out, he joined the rebel army, and soon received the rank of general. The rebels appreciated his combat experience in tactics and strategy.
Emilio Aguinaldo-i-Fami took part in the Spanish-American war on the side of the United States. He came into contact with the American military and was brought to Cavite in a warship (before that, due to his revolutionary activities, he was forced to flee to China). Emilio Aguinaldo y Fami quickly formed an army around him, which defeated the Spanish troops. He introduced civil order and developed a constitution, and was later placed at the head of the republic. When the United States decided to occupy the Philippines (the islands would become US territory) after winning the war, Aginaldo resisted. The guerrilla war lasted three years. In 1901, the revolutionary said that he abandoned the further partisan struggle and became loyal to the United States.
The end of the Spanish-American War
Spain and the United States of America concluded a truce on August 12th. The Paris Peace Treaty concluded the war. The signing of the document took place on December 10, 1898 in Paris. The agreement provided for the following results of the Spanish-American War of 1898:
- Spain rejects claims to the sovereignty of Cuba. The United States occupies the liberated territories and undertakes all obligations to protect local citizens, their lives and property.
- Spain is inferior to Puerto Rico and other islands that are under the sovereignty of the country in the Caribbean, as well as the island of Guam in the Mariana Islands archipelago.
- Spain is inferior to the United States Philippines with the condition of payment of compensation of twenty million in US currency.
Thus, the territory of the United States has increased significantly due to the Philippines, Puerto Rico and the island of Guam. The United States tried to establish complete control over the Philippines, but stumbled into resistance. Spain lost another part of its possessions. The Paris Peace Treaty also provided for the independence of Cuba, but in fact the island came under the full influence of the United States.
Consequences of hostilities
The consequence of the devastating war of Spain in the 19th century was the loss of territories that had been part of a sea power since the era of the Great Discoveries. Spain, having lost the Philippines, lost the opportunity to defend its islands in the Pacific. So a year after the end of the Spanish-American War of 1898, they were transferred to Germany for monetary compensation.
For Spain, this was a painful blow, indicating the backwardness of the country. In the oppressive atmosphere of defeat, a generation of writers has formed, which is called the "generation of 98." Impressed by the crisis was at that time the twelve-year-old King Alfons XIII. ( - ) . , . .
The consequence of the Spanish-American War of 1898 was a change in the status of the Spanish language in the world. In the Philippine Islands, which came under US rule, the local population began to speak less Spanish. But Puerto Ricans, who received American citizenship in 1897, began to actively settle in large cities in the United States.
The role of the media in the Spanish-American War
The media has always comprehensively covered the US wars, but played a particularly important role in this conflict. Military action triggered significant changes in the editions of America. Technological innovations, for example, made publishing photographs much easier than before, so more illustrations appeared in newspapers.
The events that have developed since the beginning of the struggle of Cuba for sovereignty were widely covered in the American media. The press described in detail the tough measures Spain took to curb the uprising. This aroused sympathy for the Cuban revolutionaries from the public of the United States.
On February 9, 1898, a personal letter from the Washington ambassador to his friend in Cuba was published in the newspaper. In this letter, as previously mentioned, the diplomat spoke extremely ugly about the current president of the United States. When his remarks were released, the politician immediately resigned. However, the Spanish government said that the country could not be held responsible for a personal letter, even if the author was the official.
It was at this time that the notion of “war unleashed by the press” was widely discussed at the present time. The media then idealized the image of revolutionaries who fought with Spain, and in the cinema, which became a new way of transmitting a large amount of information, they actively showed the public short films demonstrating army life and the funeral of dead soldiers. This can not be called direct propaganda, but such a role played in the opposition and public attitude to it.