In the history of mankind, great states have arisen more than once, which throughout their existence have actively influenced the development of entire regions and countries. After themselves, they left to their descendants only cultural monuments, which are studied with interest by modern archaeologists. Sometimes it’s hard for a person far from history to imagine how powerful his ancestors were centuries ago. For a hundred years, the Dzungar Khanate was considered one of the most powerful states of the seventeenth century. It led an active foreign policy, annexing new lands. Historians believe that the khanate to one extent or another exerted its influence on the few nomadic peoples, China and even Russia. The history of the Dzhungar Khanate is the clearest example of how feuds and an irrepressible thirst for power can destroy even the most powerful and powerful state.
State location
The Dzungar Khanate was formed around the seventeenth century by the Oirat tribes. At one time they were faithful allies of the great Genghis Khan and after the collapse of the Mongol Empire were able to unite to create a powerful state.
I would like to note that it occupied vast territories. If you look at the geographical map of our time and compare it with ancient texts, you can see that the Dzungarian Khanate stretched across the territories of modern Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, China and even Russia. Oirats ruled the lands from Tibet to the Urals. The warlike nomads owned lakes and rivers; they undividedly owned the Irtysh and Yenisei.
In the territories of the former Dzungar Khanate, numerous Buddha images and the ruins of defensive structures are found. Today they are not very well studied, and experts are just beginning to discover for themselves the fascinating and eventful history of this ancient state.
Who are Oirats?
The Jungar Khanate owes its education to the warlike tribes of the Oirats. They went down in history as jungars, but this name was derived from the state they created.
The Oirats themselves are descendants of the united tribes of the Mongol Empire. During its heyday, they were a powerful part of Genghis Khan's army. Historians argue that even the name of this people came from their kind of activity. Almost all men from their youth were engaged in military affairs, and the Oirat combat detachments were during the battles on the left side of Genghis Khan. Therefore, from the Mongolian language the word “oirat” can be translated as “left hand”.
It is noteworthy that even the first mention of this people refers to the period of their entry into the Mongol Empire. Many experts claim that thanks to this event they radically changed the course of their history, having received a powerful impetus to development.
After the collapse of the Mongol Empire, they formed their own khanate, which at first stood at the same level of development with two other states that arose on the fragments of the unified possessions of Chigiskhan.
The descendants of the Oirats are mainly modern Kalmyks and Western Mongolian aimaks. Partially, they settled in China, but this ethnic group is not very common here.
Education of the Dzungar Khanate
The state of Oirats in the form in which it existed for a century did not immediately form. At the end of the fourteenth century, four large Oirat tribes after a serious armed conflict with the Mongol dynasty agreed to create their own khanate. It went down in history under the name Derben-Oirat and became the prototype of a strong and powerful state, which the nomadic tribes sought.
In short, the Dzungar Khanate was formed around the seventeenth century. However, scientists disagree on the specific date of this significant event. Some believe that the state was born in the thirty-fourth year of the seventeenth century, while others claim that it happened almost forty years later. At the same time, historians even name different personalities who led the unification of the tribes and laid the foundation for the khanate.
Most of the specialists, after studying the written sources of that time and comparing the chronology of events, came to the conclusion that Gumechi was the historical person who united the tribes. His fellow tribesmen knew him as Hara-Hula-taiji. He managed to bring together Choros, Derbets and Hoyts, and then, under his leadership, send them to the war against the Mongol Khan. In the process of this conflict, the interests of many states, including Manchuria and Russia, were affected. However, as a result, a division of territories took place, which led to the formation of the Dzungar Khanate, which spread its influence throughout Central Asia.
Briefly about the genealogy of the rulers of the state
About each of the princes who ruled the khanate, references to written sources are preserved to this day. Based on these records, historians concluded that all rulers belonged to the same tribal branch. They were descendants of the Choros, like all the aristocratic clans of the Khanate. If you make a short digression into history, then we can say that the Choros belonged to the most powerful tribes of the Oirats. Therefore, it was they who managed to take power into their own hands from the first days of the existence of the state.
Title of Ruler of Oirats
Each khan besides his name bore a certain title. He showed his high position and arrogance. The title of the ruler of the Dzungar Khanate is the huntaiji. Translated from the language of Oirats, it means "great ruler." Similar additions to the names were very common among the nomadic tribes of Central Asia. They strove with all their might to consolidate their position in the eyes of their fellow tribesmen and to impress their potential enemies.
The first honorary title of the Dzungar Khanate was Erdeni-Batur, who is the son of the great Khara-Hula. At one time, he joined his father’s military campaign and managed to have a significant impact on his outcome. Therefore, it is not surprising that the united tribes very quickly recognized their young leader as their sole leader.
"Ik Tsaanj Beach": the first and main document of the Khanate
Since the state of the Dzungars was, in fact, an association of nomads, a single set of rules was needed to manage them. For its development and adoption in the fortieth year of the seventeenth century, a congress of all representatives of the tribes was convened. Princes from all over the corners of the Khanate came to him, many went on a long journey from the Volga and from Western Mongolia. In the process of intense collective work, the first document of the Oirat state was adopted. Its name “Ik Tsaanj Beach” is translated as “The Great Steppe Code”. The collection of laws itself regulated almost all aspects of tribal life, starting from religion and ending with the definition of the main administrative and economic unit of the Dzungarian Khanate.
According to the adopted document, the main state religion adopted one of the movements of Buddhism - Lamaism. This decision was influenced by the princes of the most numerous Oirat tribes, since they adhered to precisely these beliefs. The document also mentioned that the main administrative unit is the ulus, and the khan is not only the ruler of all the tribes that are part of the state, but also of the lands. This allowed the huntaiji with a strong hand to manage their territories and instantly suppress any attempts to revolt even in the most remote corners of the khanate.
Public administration: features of the device
Historians note that the administrative apparatus of the khanate was closely intertwined with the traditions of the tribal system. This allowed us to create a fairly streamlined system of managing vast territories.
The rulers of the Dzungar Khanate were the sole rulers of their lands and had the right, without the participation of aristocratic clans, to make certain decisions relating to the entire state. However, numerous and loyal officials helped to effectively manage the khuntai khanate.
The bureaucracy consisted of twelve posts. We will list them starting with the most significant:
- Tushimely. Only those closest to the khan were appointed to this position. They dealt mainly with general political issues and served as advisers to the ruler.
- Dzharguchi. These dignitaries obeyed the Tushimel and carefully monitored the observance of all laws; in parallel, they performed judicial functions.
- Democi, their assistants and Albachian-Zaisans (these also include Albachian assistants). This group was engaged in taxation and collection of taxes. However, each official was in charge of certain territories: democi collected taxes in all territories dependent on the khan and conducted diplomatic negotiations, assistants of democi and albachi distributed duties among the population and collected taxes within the country.
- Coutuiners. The officials who fall into this position controlled all the activities of territories dependent on the khanate. It was very unusual that the rulers never introduced their control system on the conquered lands. The peoples could preserve the usual legal proceedings and other structures, which greatly simplified the relationship between the khan and the conquered tribes.
- Craft officials. The rulers of the khanate paid great attention to the development of the craft, therefore, posts responsible for certain industries were allocated to a separate group. For example, the Uluts were subject to blacksmiths and casters, the Buchiners were responsible for the production of weapons and cannons, and the Buchins were in charge of cannon business only.
- Altachins. The dignitaries of this group monitored the mining of gold and the manufacture of various objects used in religious rites.
- Jahchins. These officials were primarily guards of the borders of the Khanate, and also, if necessary, played the role of people investigating crimes.
I would like to note that this managerial apparatus lasted almost unchanged for a very long time and was very effective.
Expanding the borders of the Khanate
Erdeni-Batur, despite the fact that the state initially had rather vast lands, sought by all possible means to expand its territories through the possessions of neighboring tribes. His foreign policy was extremely aggressive, but it was determined by the situation on the borders of the Dzungarian Khanate.
Around the state of Oirats, there were many tribal unions that constantly quarreled with each other. Some asked for help from the Khanate and in exchange annexed their territories to its lands. Others tried to attack the Dzhungars and after the defeat fell into a dependent position on Erdeni-Batur.
Such a policy allowed for several decades to significantly expand the borders of the Dzungarian Khanate, turning it into one of the most powerful powers in Central Asia.
The heyday of the Khanate
Until the end of the seventeenth century, all the descendants of the first ruler of the khanate continued to conduct his foreign policy. This led to the heyday of the state, which, in addition to military operations, actively traded with its neighbors, and also developed agriculture and cattle breeding.
Galdan, the grandson of the legendary Erdeni Batur, conquered new territories step by step. He fought with the Khalkhass Khanate, Kazakh tribes and East Turkestan. As a result, Galdan's army was replenished with new warriors ready for battle. Many said that over time, on the ruins of the Mongol Empire, the Dzungars would recreate a new great power under their own flag.
This outcome of events was fiercely opposed by China, which saw the khanate as a real threat to its borders. This forced the emperor to become involved in hostilities and to unite with some tribes against the Oirats.
By the middle of the eighteenth century, the rulers of the khanate were able to resolve almost all military conflicts and conclude a truce with their ancient enemies. Trade resumed with China, the Khalkhass Khanate, and even Russia, which, after the defeat of the detachment sent to build the Yarmyshev fortress, was extremely wary of the Dzungars. Around the same time period, the Khan’s military managed to finally break the Kazakhs and annex their lands.
It seemed that ahead of the state only prosperity and new achievements awaited. However, history took a completely different turn.
The fall and defeat of the Dzungar Khanate
At the time of the highest prosperity of the state, its internal problems were exposed. From about the forty-fifth year of the seventeenth century, pretenders to the throne began a long and fierce struggle for power. It lasted for ten years, during which the khanate lost its territories one after another.
The aristocracy was so carried away by political intrigues that it missed when one of the potential future rulers of Amursan asked for help from the Chinese emperors. The Qing Dynasty did not fail to seize this chance and broke into the Dzungar Khanate. The warriors of the Chinese emperor mercilessly slaughtered the local population, according to some reports, about ninety percent of the Oirats were killed. During this massacre, not only soldiers died, but also children, women, as well as old people. By the end of the fifty-fifth year of the eighteenth century, the Dzungar Khanate had completely ceased to exist.
Reasons for the destruction of the state
To the question “why the Dzungar Khanate fell”, the answer is extremely simple. Historians argue that a state that has been conducting aggressive and defensive wars for hundreds of years can only survive at the expense of strong and visionary leaders. As soon as the candidates for the title appear weak and unable to take power into their own hands, this becomes the beginning of the end of any such state. Paradoxically, what was built by the great military leaders over the years turned out to be completely unsustainable in the internecine struggle of the aristocratic clans. The Dzungar Khanate perished at the peak of its power, almost completely losing the people who created it once.