Neoplatonism as a philosophy originated in late antiquity, entered medieval philosophy, the philosophy of the Renaissance and influenced the philosophical minds of all subsequent centuries.
Ancient philosophy of neoplatonism
If we characterize Neoplatonism briefly, this is a revival of the ideas of Plato during the period of Roman decline (3-6 centuries). In Neoplatonism, the ideas of Plato were transformed into the doctrine of the emanation (radiation, outflow) of the material world from the Smart Spirit, which laid the foundation for everything.
To give a more complete interpretation, then ancient Neoplatonism is one of the directions of Hellenic philosophy that arose as an eclecticism of the teachings of Plotinus and Aristotle, as well as the teachings of the Stoics, Pythagoras, Eastern mysticism and early Christianity.
If we talk about the main ideas of this teaching, then Neoplatonism is a mystical knowledge of a higher essence, it is a sequential transition from a higher essence to lower matter. Finally, Neoplatonism is the liberation of man through ecstasy from the burdens of the material world for a truly spiritual life.
The most prominent adherents of Neoplatonism, the history of philosophy notes Plotinus, Porfiry, Proclus and Jamblichus.
Plotinus as the founder of Neoplatonism
The homeland of Plotinus is a Roman province in Egypt. He was trained by several philosophers, a large role in his education was played by Ammonius Sakkas, from whom he studied for eleven years.
In Rome, Plotinus himself became the founder of the school, which he led twenty-five years. Plotinus is the author of 54 works. Plato had a great influence on his worldview, but he was influenced by other philosophers, Greek and Roman, among whom were Seneca and Aristotle.
Dam world system
According to the teachings of Plotinus, the world is built in a strict hierarchy:
- One (Good).
- World Mind.
- World Soul.
- Matter.
Assuming the world to be one, he did not believe that the universe in all its fields is one and the same to the same extent. The Beautiful World Soul surpasses gross matter, the World Mind surpasses the World Soul, and at the highest level of superiority is the One (Good), which is the root cause of the beautiful. But the Good itself, as Plotinus believed, is higher than everything beautiful that it pours out, above all heights, and encompasses the whole world that belongs to the intelligent Spirit.
The One (Good) is an entity that is present everywhere, it manifests itself in the Mind, Soul and Matter. The One, being the unconditional Good, ennobles these substances. The absence of the One implies the absence of good.
Man’s commitment to evil is due to how high he can climb the steps of the ladder that leads to the One (Good). The path to this entity lies only through a mystical merger with it.
One as an absolute Good
Plotinus' views on the world order are dominated by the idea of unity. The One is exalted above many things, primary in relation to many things and unattainable for many things. A parallel can be drawn between Plotinus' view of the world order and the social structure of the Roman Empire.
Distant from much receives the status of the One. This remoteness from the intelligent, spiritual and material world is the cause of unknowability. If Plato's “one - many” correlates as if horizontally, then Plotinus established a vertical in the relations of the one and many (lower substances). The One above all, and therefore inaccessible to the understanding of subordinate Mind, Soul and Matter.
The absolute of unity lies in the absence in it of contradictions, opposites necessary for movement and development. Unity excludes subject-object relations, self-knowledge, aspirations, time. The One knows itself without knowledge, the One is in a state of absolute happiness and peace, and he does not need to strive for anything. The One is not connected with the category of time, because it is eternal.
Plotinus interprets the One as Good and Light. The very creation of the world by One Plotinus was designated by emanation (translated from Latin - flow, pour). In this process of creation-outpouring, it does not lose its integrity, does not become smaller.
World mind
Reason is the first that is created by the One. Mind is characterized by multiplicity, that is, the content of many ideas. Reason is dual: at the same time it strives for the One, and moves away from it. When striving for the One, he is in a state of unity, while moving away, in a state of multiplicity. Cognition is peculiar to Reason, it can be both objective (directed at some object) and subjective (directed at itself). In this, Mind is also different from the One. However, he abides in eternity and there he cognizes himself. This is the similarity of Reason with the One.
Reason comprehends its ideas and simultaneously creates them. From the most abstract ideas (being, peace, movement), he moves on to all other ideas. The paradox of Reason in Plotinus lies in the fact that it embodies ideas of both abstract and concrete. For example, the idea of a person as a concept and the idea of an individual person.
World soul
The One pours out its Light on the Mind, while the Light is not completely absorbed by the Mind. Passing through the Mind, he pours forth and creates the Soul. The Soul owes its direct origin to Reason. The One takes an indirect part in its creation.
Being at a lower level, the Soul exists outside of eternity, it is the cause of time. Like Reason, it is twofold: it has a commitment to and aversion to Reason. This essential contradiction in the Soul conditionally divides it into two Souls - high and low. The High Soul is close to Reason and does not come into contact with the world of gross matter, unlike the Low Soul. Being between two worlds (supersensible and material), the Soul thus binds them.
The properties of the Soul are ethereal and indivisible. The World Soul contains all individual souls, none of which can exist separately from others. Plotinus claimed that any soul exists even before joining the body.
Matter
Closes the world hierarchy of Matter. The pouring Light of the One successively passes from one substance to another.
According to the teachings of Plotinus, Matter abides forever, as eternally and One. However, Matter is a created substance, devoid of an independent beginning. The contradictory nature of Matter lies in the fact that it is created by the One and opposes it. Matter is a dying Light, the threshold of darkness. At the boundary of fading Light and advancing darkness, Matter always arises. If Plotinus spoke of the omnipresence of the One, then obviously it should be present in Matter. In opposition to the Light, Matter appears as Evil. It is Matter, according to Plotinus, that exudes Evil. But since it is only a dependent substance, then its Evil is not equivalent to Good (the Good of the One). The Evil of Matter is only a consequence of the lack of Good caused by the lack of the One Light.
Matter tends to change, but, undergoing changes, it remains unchanged, it does not decrease and does not arrive.
The desire for the One
Plotin believed that the descent of the One into much causes a reverse process, that is, many strive to ascend to perfect unity, trying to overcome their discord and come into contact with the One (Good), because the need for good is characteristic of absolutely everything, including low-quality matter.
A conscious craving for the One (Good) is a different person. Even low-lying nature, not dreaming of any ascent, can one day wake up, since the human soul is inseparable from the World Soul, connected with the World Mind by its exalted part. Even if the condition of the soul of the layman is such that a higher part of it is crushed by the lower part, the mind can prevail over sensual and greedy desires, which will enable the fallen person to rise.
However, Plotinus considered a real ascent to the One to be a state of ecstasy, in which the soul seemed to come out of the body and merge with the One. This path is not mental, but mystical, based on experience. And only in this highest state, according to Plotinus, can a person rise to the One.
Adherents of the teachings of Plotinus
The pupil Plotinus Porfiry, at the will of his teacher, streamlined and published his works. He became famous in philosophy as a commentator on the works of Plotinus.
Proclus in his writings developed the ideas of Neoplatonism of previous philosophers. He attached great importance to divine insight, considering it the highest knowledge. He associated love, wisdom, faith with the manifestation of a deity. A great contribution to the development of philosophy was made by his dialectic of Cosmos.
The influence of Proclus is noted in medieval philosophy. The importance of the philosophy of Proclus was emphasized by A.F. Losev, paying tribute to the subtleties of his logical analysis.
The Syrian Jamblichus studied with Porfiry and founded the Syrian school of Neoplatonism. Like other Neoplatonists, he devoted his works to ancient mythology. His merit is in the analysis and systematization of the dialectics of mythology, as well as in the systematization of the study of Plato. Along with this, his attention was focused on the practical side of philosophy associated with cult rites, the mystical practice of communicating with spirits.
The influence of neoplatonism on the philosophical thought of subsequent eras
The era of antiquity is a thing of the past, the pagan ancient philosophy has lost its relevance and disposition of power. Neoplatonism does not disappear, it arouses the interest of Christian authors (St. Augustine, Areopagite, Eriugen and others), it penetrates the Arabian philosophy of Avicenna, comes into interaction with Hindu monotheism.
In the 4th century The ideas of Neoplatonism are widely spread in Byzantine philosophy and undergo Christianization (Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa). In the late Middle Ages (14-15 centuries), Neoplatonism became the source of German mysticism (Meister Eckhart, G. Suso, etc.).
Renaissance Neoplatonism continues to serve the development of philosophy. It embodies the ideas of previous eras in a complex: attention to aesthetics, the beauty of the body in ancient Neoplatonism and awareness of the spirituality of the human person in medieval Neoplatonism. The doctrine of Neoplatonism affects philosophers such as N. Kuzansky, T. Campanella, J. Bruno and others.
Prominent representatives of German idealism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. (F.V. Schelling, G. Hegel) did not escape the influence of the ideas of Neoplatonism. The same can be said of Russian philosophers of the 19th and early 20th centuries. V.S. Soloviev, S.L. Franke, S.N. Bulgakov and others. Traces of Neoplatonism can be found in modern philosophy.
The Importance of Neoplatonism in the History of Philosophy
Neoplatonism is a step beyond philosophy, since philosophy implies a rational worldview. The object of the teachings of Neoplatonism is otherworldly, superintelligent perfection, which can only be approached in ecstasy.
Neoplatonism in philosophy is the pinnacle of the philosophy of antiquity and the threshold of theology. Unified Plotinus portends the religion of monotheism and the decline of paganism.
Neoplatonism in philosophy is a powerful influence on the development of philosophical and theological thought of the Middle Ages. The teachings of Plotinus about the pursuit of perfection, the system of concepts of his teachings, after rethinking, found their place in Western and Eastern Christian theology. Many provisions of the philosophy of Neoplatonism were necessary for Christian theologians to cope with the problem of systematizing the difficult creed of Christianity. Thus was formed a Christian philosophy called patristics.