One way or another, a person leaves his mark wherever it happens: particles of skin, hair, saliva. And the epidermal cells constantly, albeit in small quantities, secrete a secret: sweat and fat. It is at their expense that fingerprints appear on all affected subjects. And their pattern is unique to each person. So where to do fingerprinting, and why can it come in handy?
Essence
Fingerprinting is a science that studies papillary drawings, that is, those lines on the skin that every person has at their fingertips. In addition, the so-called process of establishing identity from the prints of these lines. The fact is that they are unique to each person and remain on everything that a person touches. That is why it is a wonderful method of personal identification, simple and effective enough to be applied around the world.
Historical excursion
Initially, the concept of fingerprinting as a section of trasology was proposed by the Argentine physician F. Latzina in 1894. Prior to this, the not-so-successful term "icnaphalangometry" was used. Then the fingerprinting method and their use in forensics experienced a real boom. The scientific justification for this was given by the famous English researcher Francis Galton, and his idea was developed and first widely put into practice by Juan Vuchetich. He developed a classification of fingerprints, and later a special fingerprint registration system in some South American countries. So it became possible to identify people following the traces of papillary drawings - one of the main tools of modern forensics.
It is difficult to say which of the scientists mentioned gave the greatest impetus to such a science as fingerprinting. This is a question that often causes a lot of controversy, since Galton proved that matching prints from different people is mathematically impossible, and Vuchetich seriously facilitated the very problem of identification. Most likely, in fact, it was the combination of these achievements that played the main role.
Genetic Fingerprinting
If ordinary means fingerprinting, then what is used here? Obviously, DNA analysis. This is a much finer and more accurate tool. If ordinary fingerprinting can allow some error, then errors are practically excluded, since the DNA of each person is unique. The genotyping method was developed in 1984 by a group of scientists led by Alex Jeffres. He gained fame because he was used in some notorious criminal cases, as well as in an incident involving football player O. J. Simpson in 1995.
Methodology
This method of identification has become possible due to the special structure of human DNA. The fact is that approximately 95% of the molecules are non-coding, that is, they do not carry genetic information, but contain repeating sequences that can be scattered far from each other or located nearby. It is in the latter case that they are called satellites. The number of repetitions in them can be very different, and if you take different people, it is guaranteed not to match.
There are also clusters in which the number of sequences is very small - they are called mini-satellites. And in a certain place in the DNA, each person has two such structures, one from each parent. Genetic fingerprinting is an analysis of these mini-satellites. Thanks to her, it is possible to identify with sufficient accuracy the identity to which the DNA belongs. And today, this technique plays the same role as fingerprints used to be. But if the criminal can prudently erase the latter, then it is practically impossible to leave no physical traces of his stay at all, that is, particles of skin, blood, saliva, hair, etc.
Accuracy
Genetic fingerprinting is quite reliable, that is, subject to certain standards, several test results obtained by different laboratories will not differ. The development of certain rules common to all studies of this type is now underway.
With regard to accuracy, the probability of coincidence of the analyzed parts of DNA in different people is vanishingly small. It is worth saying that the chances of this are higher, when it comes to close relatives, their results will be similar in any case. In addition, the quality of the material significantly affects the accuracy of genotyping. It is one thing to go through fingerprinting, that is, to take a test voluntarily, and quite another to try to isolate DNA from drops of dried blood or saliva.
Modern application
There are a small number of situations in which such a procedure may be useful. First of all, this is an area of crime. The guilt of the suspect can be proved, for example, if under the fingernails of the victim particles of skin are found that match his DNA. For forensic experts, genetic fingerprinting is a real find that helps to identify the identity of the offender.
A number of other situations requiring DNA profiles are debates about fatherhood and inheritance. In the past few decades, such analyzes have become quite accessible and popular.
Among other things, genotyping is used by anthropologists to trace the history and the relationship of various peoples. Thanks to DNA analysis of modern people , curious discoveries and assumptions were made.
Finally, this technique is used in animal husbandry to confirm breed cleanliness or control genetic diversity.
Where and how to do it?
Fingerprinting is easy. This is a very simple and completely painless procedure. To begin with, the fingers are coated with a special dye, and then they print on paper. However, in many institutions, just a computer scan of papillary patterns is carried out - this allows you to get rid of the difficulties of subsequent digitization.
Since 2015, it is necessary to undergo this procedure upon receipt of a new generation of passports in the Russian Federation. In addition, when applying for, for example, a British visa, it is also necessary to pass fingerprints. But you can do this voluntarily - just contact the nearest branch of the FMS.
If the question is where to do DNA fingerprinting, then the path lies in specialized medical organizations. With the decrease in the cost of this test and the spread of the necessary equipment for such institutions, it becomes more and more. This, for example, the Center for Molecular Genetics, where the result can be obtained during the working week for 10-20 thousand rubles, or the Research Institute of Medical Genetics, where this analysis will cost about the same amount. The material, as a rule, is blood or buccal epithelium (a smear that is taken from the inside of the cheek). Obviously, this procedure is also harmless and almost painless.
Ethical issues
A number of lawyers believe that the creation of a system containing fingerprints or genetic material of not only criminals, but also ordinary law-abiding citizens, is contrary to basic human rights when it comes to coercion to undergo these procedures. The main concern is the possible hacking of a single database, which will entail unauthorized access to confidential information, because genetic fingerprinting is actually a DNA passport, and such information simply should not be in the public domain.
In addition, the collection and constant updating of such a database is a very costly pleasure, and the costs, obviously, will fall on the shoulders of taxpayers. As international and Russian practice shows, it makes sense to limit the circle of people for whom fingerprinting will become mandatory, the military, law enforcement officers, civil servants and, of course, convicted or serving an administrative arrest. For the rest, the procedure for fingerprinting or submitting gene material should be strictly voluntary.